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Military history of Australia

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The Military history of Australia spans several centuries and includes Australia's involvement in wars. Australian troops were involved in many of Britain's wars from the late nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, including World War I and World War II. Australians later took part in Korea, Vietnam, and other regional conflicts. More recently, forces have been deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq. Australian troops have also served on several peacekeeping missions.

Early Colonial warfare

Main article: Colonial forces of Australia
Poster issued in Van Diemen's Land during the Black War depicting the policy of friendship and equal justice

The "Black War"

Main article: Black War

By 1826, the indigenous population of Tasmania had begun violent resistance to the expansion of British settlements. In 1828, the colonial government considered this resistance to be serious enough to impose martial law. The subsequent military action was referred to as "the Black War". In 1830, Colonel George Arthur executed a plan known as the “Black Line”, which aimed to herd the entire native population onto two peninsulas. The plan was a disastrous failure. They ended up capturing two members of the indigenous community, a young child and elderley man. The English, it seemed, had not enough experience of the Australian geography and the Aboriginals easily managed to break the line and evade capture. Hostilities continued until 1832. Later efforts would result in what has been called the only successful genocide ever completed. The native populace was eventually herded into tiny reserves and left to rot. Between disease and the theft of their children, the Tasmanian aboriginies as a "full-blooded" race were annihilated. A significant number of Tasmanian aboriginies of mixed indigenous/European lineage remain.

The "Battle of Pinjarra"

Main article: Battle of Pinjarra

In 1834, in response to violent resistance to the expansion of British settlements in Western Australia, Captain James Stirling initiated “the Battle of Pinjarra” near the town of Pinjarra. The Nyungar Tribe, including the women and children, were chased down, surrounded and fired upon. The survivors were then briefly imprisoned and released as a sign of the benevolence of the Empire.

The New Zealand Wars 1861-1864

Taranaki War

Main article: First Taranaki War

In 1861, the Victorian Colonial ship the HMVS Victoria went to help the New Zealand Colonial government in its war against Māori in Taranaki. After it finished its work there, one sailor was killed.

Invasion of the Waikato

Main article: Invasion of the Waikato

In late 1863, the New Zealand Colonial government requested troops to assist in the invasion of the Waikato province in New Zealand (Waikato war). They recruited about 2,500 men in the Colonies of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, over half of them from Victoria. During the war, about 31 Australians were killed.

Sudan March-June 1885

During the early years of the 1880s, an Egyptian regime in the Sudan, backed by the British, came under threat from rebellion under the leadership of native Muhammad Ahmad (or Ahmed), known as Mahdi to his followers. In 1883, the Egyptians sent an army to deal with the revolt. However, the Egyptians were defeated and faced a difficult campaign of extracting their forces. The British sent General Charles Gordon to take care of the problem, but he was killed in January 1885. When news of his death arrived in New South Wales in February 1885, its government offered to send forces and meet the contingent's expenses. The battle group consisted of an infantry battalion of 522 men and 24 officers as well as an artillery battery of 212 men. It set sail from Sydney on March 3, 1885. They arrived in Suakin, Sudan on March 29, 1885, and were attached to a brigade that consisted of Scots, Grenadiers, and Coldstream Guards. They marched, in a large "square" formation made up of 10,000 men, for Tamai. They reached the village, burned huts that were standing and returned to Suakin, the Australians taking 3 casualties, none fatal. After this, most of the NSW contingent worked on a railway line that was being laid across the desert towards Berber, a town on the Nile. The Australians had been assigned to guard duties, but soon a camel corps was raised and 50 men volunteered. They rode on a reconnaissance to Takdul on May 6. On May 15, they made one last sortie to bury the dead that were killed from the fighting of the previous March. The artillery were posted at Handoub and drilled for a month, but, on May 15, they rejoined the camp at Suakin. The only casualties were from disease. By May 1885, the British government decided that the campaign in Sudan was not worth the trouble and left a garrison in Suakin, while the Australian contingent sailed for home on May 17. They arrived in Sydney on June 19, 1885.

Boer War 1899-1902

The Second Boer War resulted from the history of British encroachment into or involvement in areas already settled by Afrikaners — who were known colloquially as Boers ("farmers") — the descendants of the original Dutch settlers. This was exacerbated by the discovery of gold and diamonds in the South African Republic, after which many miners from British Empire countries migrated there (including many Australians).

Before Federation and the forming of the national army, the six Australian colonial governments sent separate contingents to South Africa to serve in the Second Boer War. These soldiers were paid by the British government and, as such, were technically part of the British Army.

In July 1899, during the long lead up to war, Queensland offered troops. However, the first detachment, sent in October 1899, was known as The Australian Regiment and was an infantry unit, made up mainly of volunteers from the Colonies of Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia, who left on one ship for Cape Town. Due to the way the war developed, these troops were converted from infantry to mounted infantry. They were not involved in the British defeats of Black Week (December 10-17) when 2,300 men were killed or wounded in three different battles.

About 500 members of the Queensland Mounted Infantry and the New South Wales Lancers took part in the relief of Kimberley in February 1900, and men of the New South Wales Mounted Rifles played a minor role at Paardeburg.

After the Afrikaner republics were defeated, Afrikaners formed Commandos, which disrupted British Empire troop movements and lines of supply. The Afrikaners used the latest magazine rifles with smokeless powder and were able to snipe at Imperial infantry, who had a tough time adapting to this style of warfare.

The new phase of resistance from the Afrikaner forces led to further recruiting in the Australian colonies. Known as Bushmen's Contingents, these soldiers were usually volunteers with horse-riding and shooting skills but no military experience. After Federation in 1901, eight Australian Commonwealth Horse battalions were sent.

Many of the Australian units were short-lived and subject to frequent restructuring. Some Australians also joined local (multinational) units instead of returning to Australia, such as the Bushveldt Carbineers; famed as the last unit in which Lieutenants Harry "Breaker" Morant and Peter Handcock served, before their court martial and execution for alleged war crimes.

By mid-1901, British Empire mounted units would ride at night to attack Boer farmhouses or encampments, overwhelming the smaller number of Afrikaners with superior numbers. In the last few months of 1901, the NSW Mounted Rifles traveled 1,814 miles and were involved in 13 skirmishes at the loss of 5 dead and 19 wounded. They killed 27 Boers, wounded 15, and captured 196.

Other notable actions at which Australian units served included Sunnyside, Slingersfontein, Pink Hill, the Siege of Eland's River, Rhenosterkop and Haartebeestefontein.

In all, 16,175 Australians, with 16,314 horses, served in the Boer War; 251 were killed in action, 267 died of other causes and 43 went missing in action. Six Victoria Crosses were awarded to members of the Australian contingents.

Boxer Rebellion 1900-1901

The Boxer Rebellion began in 1900 and the western powers soon sent forces to the area. Because most of their troops were engaged in South Africa in the Boer War, the Australians looked to the navy to provide manpower. The reservists were organized into naval brigades in which the training was oriented for coastal defense by sailors who would be capable of ship handling and fighting as soldiers. On August 8, 1900 the first Australian contingents from New South Wales and Victoria sailed for China. When they arrived in Tientsin, they provided 300 men to an 8,000-strong multinational force (made up of Russian, German, Austrian, British Indian, and Chinese troops) to take Chinese forts at Pei Tang which overlooked a rail route. However, the Australian contingent arrived at Pei Tang when the battle was already won. The next action they took part in was against the Boxer fortress at Pao-ting Fu, where the Chinese government was believed to have found asylum after Peking was taken by western forces. The Victorians joined a force of 7,500 on a 10 day march to the fort to find that it had already surrendered. During this time, the New South Wales contingent had undertaken garrison duties in Peking when they arrived, on October 22, after a 12 day march. Remaining in Terenal and Peking over the winter, they performed police and guard duties, sometimes working as railwaymen and fire-fighters. Although the Australians played a small role in combat, they did play a role in the restoration of civil order. The entire naval brigade left China in March 1901. Six Australians died from sickness and injury, but none were killed as a result of enemy action.

Creation of the Royal Australian Navy

HMAS Australia
Main article: History of the Royal Australian Navy

Prior to the formation of the Commonwealth of Australia, each self-governing colony in Australia operated its own naval force. These usually consisted of naval gunboats for coastal defence of harbours and rivers. The separate colonial navies were small and lacked blue water capabilities, this forced the separate colonies to subsidise the cost of a British naval squadron in their waters for decades. The separate colonies maintained control over their respective navies until 1 march 1901, when the Commonwealth Naval Force was created. This new commonwealth force also lacked any blue water ships and did not lead to a change in Australia's naval policy. In 1909, Prime Minister Alfred Deakin, while attending the Imperial Conference in London, sought the British Government's agreement to end the subsidy system and develop an Australian navy. The Admiralty rejected and resented the challenge, but suggested diplomatically that a small fleet of destroyers and submarines would be sufficient. Deakin was not impressed with the Admiralty and, in 1908, invited the Great White Fleet to visit Australia, this fired the public enthusiasm for a modern navy. This led to the order of two 700 ton River class destroyers, a purchase that angered the British. The surge in German naval construction, in 1909, lead the Admiralty to change their position on an Australian Navy. The Royal Australian Navy came into existence in 1911 and, on 4 October 1913, the new fleet steamed through Sydney Heads, the fleet consisted of the Battle cruiser HMAS Australia, three light cruisers and 3 destroyers with several other ships under construction. The Royal Australian Navy entered World War I as a formidable force.[1]

First World War 1914-1918

Main article: Military history of Australia during World War I
Australian recruitment poster, 1914-1918.

When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany at the start of World War I, the Australian government followed without hesitation. It was believed at the time that any declaration of war by Britain automatically included Australia, in part because of the very large number of British-born citizens and first generation Anglo-Australians at the time. By the end of the war, almost 20% of those who served in the Australian forces had been born in the United Kingdom, even though nearly all enlistments had occurred in Australia.

Because existing militia forces were unable to serve overseas, an all-volunteer expeditionary force, the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) was formed from August 15, 1914. The Australian government had pledged to supply 20,000 men, organised as one infantry division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units. The first commander of the AIF was General William Bridges, who also assumed direct command of the infantry division.

Australians first saw action in German New Guinea, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force was a 2,000 man all volunteer force that was separate to the AIF. The force attacked and occupies the German territories with little opposition and forced a surrender on 17 September 1914. The losses of the AN&MEF were light, Australia's first military fatality of the war was believed to be Seaman W.G.V. Williams. The only major loss of the campaign was the submarine AE1.

The AIF departed in a single convoy from Albany, Western Australia on November 1, 1914. During the journey, HMAS Sydney destroyed the German cruiser SMS Emden, at the Battle of Cocos, the first ship to ship action for the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). The AIF was sent initially to British-controlled Egypt, to preempt any attack by the Ottoman Empire, and with a view to opening another front against the Central Powers.

The combined Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), commanded by British general William Birdwood, went into action when Allied forces landed on the Gallipoli peninsula on April 25, 1915 (now commemorated as Anzac Day). The Battle of Gallipoli would last for eight months of bloody stalemate.

After Gallipoli Australian troops returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion. In 1916, the Infantry Divisions began to move to France while the cavalry units stayed in the area and combated Turkish troops. Australian troops took part in many battles on the Western Front and managed to distinguish themselves many times.

Australian troops landing at Gallipoli

A total of 331,814 Australians were sent overseas to serve, of those who served in the AIF, 18% (61,859) were killed the casualty rate (killed or wounded) was 64%. The financial cost of the war to the Australian government was £188,480,000.

During the war two referenda on conscription had been defeated, preserving the volunteer status, but stretching the reserves towards the end of the war. The AIF also had a desertion rate larger than Britain, mainly because the death penalty was not in force. It is also important to remember with regards to this statistic that the vast majority of deserters returned voluntarily to their units, unlike those of the other armies in the war.

Campaigns

Spanish Civil War 1936-1939

Australian volunteers participated in the armed forces supporting both sides of the Spanish Civil War, though predominantly supporting the Spanish Republic through the International Brigades. While the Spanish Civil War was a celebrated cause for the Australian left, particularly the Communist Party of Australia, the war did not spark particular public interest. While individual right wing Australians served on the side of the Nationalist rebels, they did not receive any public support from within Australia. Australian opposition to the Republican cause was marshalled by B.A. Santamaria on an anti-communist basis, rather than a pro-Nationalist basis. Returned veterans from either side were not subsequently recognised by either the government or the RSL.

Second World War 1939-1945

Darwin bombed in 1942
Main article: Military history of Australia during World War II

During the first years of World War II Australia's military strategy was closely aligned with that of Britain. In line with this, Australia's war effort was concentrated in the Middle East and Mediterranean Sea. Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force units saw action in North Africa, Greece, Crete and Lebanon and ships of the Royal Australian Navy formed a significant component of the British Mediterranean Fleet.

As a result of this emphasis on cooperation with Britain, relatively few Australian military units were retained in Australia and the Asia-Pacific Region. Following the Japanese attacks on South East Asia in late 1941, Australia was attacked itself during the Air raids on Darwin, February 19, 1942. Australian troops were sent home from the Middle East to defend the country from the Japanese. While the Japanese had formulated plans for an invasion of Australia, however, they never actually intended to do so, believing that resistance from the Australian population would be too strong. Australian forces in New Guinea fought the Japanese along the Kokoda Track. During the Borneo campaign the Australian I Corps, under General Leslie Morshead, attacked Japanese forces occupying the island. During the war in the Pacific, Australia and the United States fought many campaigns together against the Japanese Empire.

Campaigns

Korean War 1950-1953

Main article: Military history of Australia during the Korean War
Members of 3 RAR move forward in 1951

On June 25, 1950, a North Korean army crossed into South Korea and advanced for the capital Seoul, which fell in less than a week. North Korea's forces continued toward the port of Pusan, a strategic goal. In two days, the United States offered assistance and the United Nations Security Council asked its members to help repel the North Korean attack. Australia contributed No. 77 Squadron RAAF and the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), both of which were stationed in Japan under the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF). In addition to combat personnel, the Australian military provided the majority of supply and support personnel to BCOF, which was superseded in 1952 by British Commonwealth Forces Korea.

By the time 3 RAR arrived in Pusan on September 28, the North Korean army was in retreat. As a part of the invasion force under the UN Supreme Commander, General Douglas MacArthur, 3 RAR moved north and was involved in its first major action near Pyongyang.

After the Chinese government moved 18 divisions into North Korea, the UN forces were defeated in successive battles and they retreated to the 38th parallel. However, Australian troops participated in two major battles in 1951. The first was the Battle of Kapyong: on April 22, Chinese forces attacked the Kapyong Valley and forced South Korean and New Zealand troops to retreat. Australian and Canadian troops were ordered to halt this Chinese advance. After a night of fighting, the Australians recaptured their positions, at the cost of 32 men killed and 53 wounded. For this contribution of stalling the Chinese advance, 3 RAR received a United States Distinguished Unit Citation.

Firefly aircraft on board HMAS Sydney off Korea

The second major battle they fought in was Operation Commando. It was an attack on a Chinese salient in a bend of the Imjin River. Objectives of the 1st Commonwealth Division, including the Australians, included Hill 355 and Hill 317. The attack commenced on October 3, and after five days the Chinese retreated. Casualties include 20 dead and 89 wounded for the Australians.

After 1951, both sides were in a type of combat comparable to the Western Front in World War I in which men lived in tunnels, redoubts, and sandbagged forts behind barbed wire defenses. From 1951 to the end of the war, 3 RAR held trenches on the eastern side of the Commonwealth Division's positions in the hills northeast of the Imjin River. Across from them were heavily fortified Chinese positions. Australia decided to increase its commitment by sending 1 RAR as well. This battalion remained in Australia for 12 months, leaving in March 1953, being replaced by 2 RAR in April.

The UN and North Korea agreed to suspend hostilities on July 27, 1953. All in all, Australian casualties numbered more than 1,500, of whom 339 were killed.

Malayan Emergency 1950-1960

The Malayan Emergency was declared, on June 18, 1948, after three estate managers were murdered by the MCP (Malayan Communist Party). Australian involvement in the emergency began in 1950, with the arrival of RAAF 1 and 38 Squadrons to Singapore. Dakotas from 38 Squadron carried out cargo runs, troop movement, and paratrooper and leaflet drops, whilst Lincoln bombers of 1 Squadron carried out bombing raids. The RAAF in Malaysia were particularly successful, using 5 Lincoln bombers, in Operation Termite, a joint operation with the RAF and ground troops. Operation Termite destroyed 181 communist camps, killed 13 communists and forced 1 into surrender.

In January, 1956, the first Australian ground forces were deployed on Malaysian peninsula, the 2nd Battalion Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR). 2 RAR mainly participated in "mopping up" over the next 20 months, as part of 28 Commonwealth Brigade. 2 RAR left Malaysia October 1957 to be replaced by 3 RAR. 3 RAR underwent 6 weeks of jungle training and began driving MCP insurgents back into the jungle of Perak and Kedah. By late 1959, operations against the MCP were in their final phase, and most communists had been pushed back and across the Thai border. 3 RAR left Malaysia October 1959 to be replaced by 1 RAR. Though patrolling the border 1 RAR did not make contact with the insurgents, and in October 1960 were replaced by 2 RAR, who stayed in Malaysia until August 1963. The Malayan Emergency was officially over by 31 July, 1960. Australia also provided artillery and engineer support, along with an air-field construction squadron. The Royal Australian Navy also served in Malayan waters, firing on suspected communist positions between 1956 and 1957. By the end of the Malayan Emergency, Australian forces had suffered 66 casualties, 39 of which were fatal. The Emergency was the longest continued military commitment in Australian military history.

Growth during the 1960s

At the start of the 1960s Prime Minister Robert Menzies greatly expanded the Australian military so that it could carry out the Government's policy of 'forward defence' in South East Asia. In 1964, Menzies announced a massive increase in Australia's defence spending. The strength of the Army would be increased by 50% over 3 years from 22,000 to 33,000 providing a full three brigade division with 9 battalions. At this time, both the RAAF and the RAN would be increased by 25%. In 1964, National Service was introduced, under the National Service Act (1964), for selected 20 year olds based on date of birth, to have two years’ continuous full-time service.[2]

HMAS Onslow at the Australian National Maritime Museum

In 1961, three Charles F. Adams class destroyers were purchased from the United States to replace the aging Q class destroyers. Traditionally, the RAN up to then had purchased designs based on those of the Royal Navy, the purchase of American destroyers was one of the first signs that Australia was becoming less dependent on England. HMA Ships Perth and Hobart joined the fleet in 1965 followed by HMAS Brisbane in 1967. Other ship projects of the time included: the purchase of 6 River class frigates, the conversion of the HMAS Melbourne to an anti-submarine role, the purchase of 10 Wessex helicopter and the purchase of 6 Oberon class submarines.

Air Force growth

The F-111 is still in service today

The RAAF took delivery of their first Mirage fighters in 1967, both 3 and 75 Squadrons were equipped with them. The RAAF would also receive American F-111 strike aircraft, C-130 Hercules transports, Orion maritime reconnaissance aircraft and Italian Macchi trainers.

Indonesian Confrontation 1964-1966

In 1961, the island of Borneo was divided into four different states, including Indonesia and Malaysia (mostly because of the backing of the UK). This angered Indonesian President Sukarno as he thought that this would increase British control in the region and in 1963, Indonesia announced that they would pursue a policy of Konfrontasi (confrontation) with Malaysia. After two years of Indonesian confrontation in Borneo, through many British and Malaysian requests, Australia deployed a battalion in Borneo in January 1965. Most Australian troops were stationed in Sarawak. The main situation of the British battalion and Malaysian troops was to control the Malaysian/Indonesian border to protect the centres of population from enemy attacks. But, by the time Australia had been deployed, the British agreed to take more aggressive action, crossing borders to obtain information and forcing Indonesia to remain on the defensive on their side of the border. The situation was resolved from a military coup in 1966 bringing General Suharto into power, who had little interest in obtaining Borneo. Throughout the military intervention, 23 Australians were killed and eight were wounded.

Vietnam War 1962-1972

An iconic image of Australian soldiers from 7 RAR waiting to be picked up by UH-1 Iroquois helicopters following a routine cordon and search operation
Main article: Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War

Australia, as well as the United States, supported South Vietnam throughout the early 1960s. In 1961 and 1962, the leader of the South Vietnamese government, Ngo Dinh Diem asked for assistance from the US and its allies to improve security. Australia offered 30 military advisors, sent as the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam which was often known simply as "The Team". They arrived in July and August 1962, which started Australia's involvement in the war. In August 1964, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) sent a flight of Caribou transport planes to Vung Tau, a port town.

In early 1965, the US increased involvement in the war with 200,000 troops, and Australia dispatched the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR) to serve with the US 173rd Airborne Brigade in Bien Hoa province in June 1965.

In March 1966, the government announced that they were sending a brigade-sized unit, the 1st Australian Task Force, to replace 1 RAR, initially with two battalions and support services, to be based at Nui Dat, in Phouc Tuy province. 1 ATF included the Iroquois helicopters of No. 9 Squadron RAAF. The task force was assigned primary responsibility for its own area and included conscripts who had been raised into an army under the National Service Scheme, passed in 1964. At the Battle of Long Tan, on August 18-19, 1966, D Company, 6 RAR and other units held off a Viet Cong force that was at least six times bigger.

At the height of Australian commitment, the taskforce numbered 8,500 troops. A third RAAF unit, No. 2 Squadron, flying Canberra bombers, was sent in 1967, and destroyers of the Royal Australian Navy joined US patrols in the waters off North Vietnam. A total of more than 50,000 Australian troops participated in the Vietnam War.

Creation of the Australian Defence Force

In 1973, the Labor Government amalgamated the five defence ministries (Defence, Navy, Army, Air Force and Supply) into a single Department of Defence. On January 1 1976 the three branches of the Australian Military were brought together for the first time as the Australian Defence Force (ADF). The ADF is headquartered at Russell Offices in Canberra and is divided into Air, Land, Martime and Special Operations Commands. In addition, Northern Command, headquartered in Darwin, is responsible for operations in Northern Australia.

Gulf War

HMAS Sydney in the Persian Gulf in 1991.
Main article: Australian contribution to the 1991 Gulf War

Australia was a member of the international coalition which contributed military forces to the 1991 Gulf War, with Australia deploying a naval task group of two warships and a support ship during the war. While the Australian force did not see combat, it did play a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following the invasion of Kuwait.

Global War on Terror

Main article: Operation Slipper

The Australian Defence Force's most visible contribution to the international coalition against terrorism has been a special forces task group operating in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2002 and again from mid-2005. Australia has also contributed a frigate and two AP-3 Orion aircraft to international operations in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean since 2001. A detachment of F/A-18 Hornet fighters was based at Diego Garcia from late 2001 to mid 2002.

Iraq

HMA Ships Anzac (second from right) and Darwin (first from left) with United States and British warships in late 2002
Main article: Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq

The Australian Special Forces task force sent to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq is said to have been one of the first components of the coalition forces to cross the border into Iraq. For a few days, the closest ground troops to Baghdad were from the Australian Special Air Service Regiment. The Royal Australian Navy deployed three ships and the Royal Australian Air Force deployed 14 F/A-18 Hornet jets and other aircraft.

While Australia did not initially take part in the post-war occupation of Iraq, an Australian Army battlegroup (designated the Al Muthanna Task Group) was deployed to southern Iraq in April 2005. The role of this force was to protect the Japanese engineer contingent in the region and support the training of New Iraqi Army units. There were about 1,400 Australian military servicemen and women serving in the Middle East as of March 2006.

Peacekeeping

Australian peacekeeping deployments since 1945

Australia has had peacekeepers in the field with the United Nations continuously for over 50 years. In Indonesia in 1947, Australians were part of the very first group of UN military observers anywhere in the world, and were, in fact, the first into the field.

Six multinational operations have been commanded by Australians:

1. Lieutenant General Robert Nimmo was Chief Military Observer in Kashmir with the UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan, from 1950 to 1966

2. Lieutenant General John Sanderson was Force Commander with the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia, 1992 to 1993

3. Brigadier David Ferguson was Force Commander with the Multinational Force and Observers (in the Sinai) from 1994 to 1997

4. Richard Butler led the UN Special Commission (in Iraq) from 1997 to 1999

5. Major General Timothy Ford was Chief of Staff with the UN Truce Supervision Organisation from 1998 to 2000

6. Major General Peter Cosgrove commanded the International Force for East Timor (Interfet) from 1999 to 2000.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Macdougall pg. 23
  2. ^ Macdougall Pg. 327

References

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