Philosophy: Difference between revisions
Infogiraffic (talk | contribs) WP:ATC |
Section "Historical development" rewritten; earlier drafts are found at User:Phlsph7/Philosophy_-_history_section; for a detailed discussion, see Talk:Philosophy#Changes_to_the_section_"Historical_overview"; many of the replaced passages with sources were moved to the corresponding main articles |
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== Historical overview {{anchor|History}} == |
== Historical overview {{anchor|History}} == |
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{{main|History of philosophy}} |
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The history of philosophy studies the development of philosophical thought. It aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines.{{sfn|Copleston|2003|p=4–6}}{{sfn|Santinello|Piaia|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gC2J3V7_TPUC&pg=PA487 487–488]}}{{sfn|Verene|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC&pg=PA6 6–8]}} Some theorists see it as a part of [[intellectual history]], but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and philosophically relevant today.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Laerke|Smith|Schliesser|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RssWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 115–118]}} |2={{harvnb|Verene|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC&pg=PA6 6–8]}} |3={{harvnb|Frede|2022|p=x}} |4={{harvnb|Beaney|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eMZoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} }}</ref> The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on [[Rationality|rational]] inquiry and argumentation. However, some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes [[myth]]s, [[Religion|religious teachings]], and proverbial lore.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Scharfstein|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iZQy2lu70bwC&pg=PA1 1–4]}} |2={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Is there Indian philosophy?}} |3={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=1–3}} |4={{harvnb|Rescher|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2yEvBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA173 173]}} |5={{harvnb|Parkinson|2005|p=1–2}} }}</ref> The main traditions in the history of philosophy include [[Western philosophy|Western]], [[Islamic philosophy|Arabic-Persian]], [[Indian philosophy|Indian]], and [[Chinese philosophy]], the latter two of which are often referred to under the broader heading of ''[[Eastern philosophy]]''. Other influential philosophical traditions are [[Japanese philosophy]], [[Latin American philosophy]], and [[African philosophy]].{{sfn|Smart|2008|pp=1–11}} |
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=== Western === |
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{{main|Western philosophy}} |
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[[File:Aristoteles_der_Stagirit.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a statue of Aristotle|Statue of [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), a major figure of ancient Greek philosophy, in Aristotle's Park, [[Stageira Chalkidikis|Stagira]]]] |
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{{split section|History of philosophy|date=May 2023|discuss=Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy#Proper_article_for_"History_of_philosophy"}} |
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{{More citations needed|date=May 2022|1=section}} |
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Western philosophy covers philosophical thought linked to the geographical region and cultural heritage of the [[Western world]].{{sfn|Iannone|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AyB6GXM-CZkC&pg=PT12 12]}}{{sfn|Kelly|2004|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AFwr3CCoqAEC&pg=PR11 Preface]}} It originated in [[Ancient Greece]] in the 6th century BCE with the [[Presocratics]]. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the [[cosmos]] as a whole.{{sfn|Blackson|2011|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=89zzlbsG1KgC&pg=PT13 Introduction]}}{{sfn|Graham|2023|loc=lead section, 1. Presocratic Thought}}{{sfn|Duignan|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MfBS-RXJ5RsC&pg=PA9 9–11]}} The philosophy following them was shaped by [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and [[Aristotle]]. They expanded the range of topics to questions like [[Ethics|how people should act]], [[Epistemology|how to arrive at knowledge]], and what the [[Metaphysics|nature of reality]] and [[mind]] is.{{sfn|Graham|2023|loc=lead section, 2. Socrates, 3. Plato, 4. Aristotle}}{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Socrates, Plato, Aristotle}} The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements including like [[Epicureanism]], [[Stoicism]], [[Skepticism]], and [[Neoplatonism]].{{sfn|Long|1986|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3s6DILqP1MwC&pg=PA1 1]}}{{sfn|Blackson|2011|loc=Chapter 10}}{{sfn|Graham|2023|loc=6. Post-Hellenistic Thought}} The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate [[Christian doctrine]].<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Duignan|2010a|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5HoJ77q1TN8C&pg=PA9 9]}} |2={{harvnb|Lagerlund|2020|p=v}} |3={{harvnb|Marenbon|2023|loc=lead section}} |4={{harvnb|MacDonald|Kretzmann|1996|loc=lead section}} }}</ref>{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Part II: Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy}}{{sfn|Adamson|2019|pp=3–4}} |
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In one general sense, philosophy is associated with [[wisdom]], intellectual culture, and a search for knowledge. In this sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions, such as "how are we to live" and "what is the nature of reality". A broad and impartial conception of philosophy, then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as [[reality]], [[morality]], and life in all world civilizations.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy|date=2011-06-09|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780195328998|editor1-last=Garfield|editor1-first=Jay L|chapter=Introduction|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.001.0001|editor2-last=Edelglass|editor2-first=William|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195328998|access-date=19 December 2019|archive-date=31 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331133725/http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195328998|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The [[Renaissance]] period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in various schools of Ancient philosophy, in particular [[Platonism]]. The idea of [[Renaissance humanism|humanism]] also emerged in this period.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Parkinson|2005|p=1–14}} |2={{harvnb|Adamson|2022|pp=155–157}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Renaissance}} |4={{harvnb|Chambre|Maurer|Stroll|McLellan|2023|loc=Renaissance philosophy}} }}</ref> The following modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and [[Science|scientific]] knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the [[Rationalism|role of reason]] and [[Empiricism|sensory experience]].{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=The Rise of Modern Thought; The Eighteenth-century Enlightenment}}{{sfn|Anstey|Vanzo|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2LytEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 236–237]}} Many of these innovations were used in the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment movement]] to challenge traditional authorities.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment}}{{sfn|Kenny|2006|pp=90–92}} Various attempts to develop all-inclusive systems of philosophy were made in the later part of the modern period, for example, by [[German idealism]].{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century}} Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of [[formal logic]] and the focus on the [[Linguistic turn|role of language]] as well as philosophical movements like [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] and [[pragmatism]].{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Twentieth Century}}{{sfn|Zack|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lSgf2OuCpcoC&pg=PA255 255, 331–384]}} |
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=== Western philosophy<!--'History of Western philosophy' and 'History of western philosophy' redirect here--> === |
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{{Main|Western philosophy}} |
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[[File:Aristoteles_der_Stagirit.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), a major figure of ancient Greek philosophy, in Aristotle's Park, [[Stageira Chalkidikis|Stagira]]]] |
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[[Western philosophy]] is the philosophical tradition of the [[Western world]], dating back to [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] thinkers who were active in 6th-century [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] (BCE), such as [[Thales]] ({{Circa|624|545|lk=yes}} BCE) and [[Pythagoras]] ({{Circa|570|495|lk=no}} BCE) who practiced a "love of wisdom" ({{Lang-la|philosophia}})<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last1=Hegel|first1=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=b_VvghYDArwC}}|title=Lectures on the History of Philosophy: Greek philosophy|last2=Brown|first2=Robert F.|date=2006|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-927906-7|page=33}}</ref> and were also termed "students of nature" ({{Lang-la|physiologoi|label=none}}). |
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=== Arabic-Persian === |
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[[Western philosophy]] can be divided into three eras: |
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{{main|Islamic philosophy}} |
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Arabic-Persian philosophy is the philosophical tradition of [[Arabic]]- and [[Persian language|Persian]]-speaking regions.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Arabic-Persian Philosophy}}{{sfn|Adamson|2016|p=5}} It started in the early 9th century CE and had its peak period during the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. It was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophers and employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the [[Quran]].<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Adamson|Taylor|2004|p=1}} |2={{harvnb|EB staff|2020}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Arabic-Persian Philosophy}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|p=5–6}} }}</ref> |
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[[File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_(Avicenna)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_(7423560860).jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase|An Iranian portrait of [[Avicenna]] on a Silver Vase. He was one of the most influential philosophers of the [[Islamic Golden Age]].]] |
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# [[Ancient Greek philosophy|Ancient]] ([[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]]). |
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# [[Medieval philosophy]] (referring to Christian European thought). |
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# [[Modern philosophy]] (beginning in the 17th century). |
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[[Al-Kindi]] is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between [[reason]] and [[faith]].<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Esposito|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA246 246]}} |2={{harvnb|Nasr|Leaman|2013|loc=11. Al-Kindi}} |3={{harvnb|Nasr|2006|p=109–110}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2020|loc=lead section}} }}</ref> [[Avicenna]] also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.{{sfn|Gutas|2016}}{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Sina (Avicenna)}} [[Al-Ghazali]] was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed [[The Incoherence of the Philosophers|critique of philosophy]] and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place beside the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|p=140–146}} |2={{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cU7cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} |3={{harvnb|Griffel|2020|loc=lead section, 3. Al-Ghazâlî’s “Refutations” of falsafa and Ismâ’îlism, 4. The Place of Falsafa in Islam}} }}</ref> Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the Islamic Golden Age, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Rushd (Averroes)}}{{sfn|Kaminski|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KDUyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 32]}} [[Mulla Sadra]] is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.{{sfn|Rizvi|2021|loc=lead section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and Psychology}}{{sfn|Chamankhah|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2GGtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73]}} |
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==== Ancient era ==== |
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While our knowledge of the ancient era begins with [[Thales]] in the 6th century BCE, little is known about the philosophers who came before [[Socrates]] (commonly known as [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|the pre-Socratics]]). The ancient era was dominated by [[Ancient Greek philosophy|Greek philosophical schools]]. Most notable among the schools influenced by Socrates' teachings were [[Plato]], who founded the [[Platonic Academy]], and his student [[Aristotle]], who founded the [[Peripatetic school]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitehead |first=Alfred North |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJDEx6rPu1QC |title=Process and Reality |date=2010-05-11 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-4391-1836-8 |language=en|page=39}}</ref> Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]], [[Cyrenaics|Cyrenaicism]], [[Stoicism]], and [[Academic Skepticism]]. Two other traditions were influenced by Socrates' contemporary, [[Democritus]]: [[Pyrrhonism]] and [[Epicureanism]]. Important topics covered by the Greeks included [[metaphysics]] (with competing theories such as [[atomism]] and [[monism]]), [[cosmology]], the nature of the well-lived life (''[[eudaimonia]]''), the [[Epistemology|possibility of knowledge]], and the nature of reason ([[logos]]). With the rise of the [[Roman empire]], Greek philosophy was increasingly discussed in [[Latin]] by [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] such as [[Cicero]] and [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] (see [[Roman philosophy]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kenny |first=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwA44eCAUoIC |title=Ancient Philosophy: A New History of Western Philosophy |date=2004-06-17 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-162252-6 |language=en}}</ref> |
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=== Indian === |
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{{main|Indian philosophy}} |
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[[Medieval philosophy]] (5th–16th centuries) took place during the period following the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] and was dominated by the rise of [[Christianity]]; it hence reflects [[Judeo-Christian]] theological concerns while also retaining a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such as the existence and nature of [[God]], the nature of [[faith]] and reason, metaphysics, and the [[problem of evil]] were discussed in this period. Some key medieval thinkers include [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Boethius]], [[Anselm of Laon|Anselm]] and [[Roger Bacon]]. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed as an aid to [[theology]] ({{Lang-la|ancilla theologiae|label=none}}), and hence they sought to align their philosophy with their interpretation of sacred scripture. This period saw the development of [[scholasticism]], a text critical method developed in [[medieval universities]] based on close reading and disputation on key texts. The [[Renaissance]] period saw increasing focus on classic Greco-Roman thought and on a robust [[humanism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kenny |first=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8Pab9HChqMC |title=Medieval Philosophy: A New History of Western Philosophy, Volume 2 |date=2007-05-31 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-162253-3 |language=en}}</ref> |
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Indian philosophy covers philosophical thought that originated on the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Gupta|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2mmpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT8 8]}}{{sfn|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview}} One of its distinguishing features is its integrated exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the [[Spirituality|spiritual]] question of how to reach [[Enlightenment (spiritual)|enlightenment]].{{sfn|Smart|2008|pp=3}}{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} It started around 900 BCE when the religious scriptures known as the [[Vedas]] were written. They contemplate issues concerning the relation between the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|self]] and [[Brahman|ultimate reality]] as well as the question of how [[Jiva|souls]] are reborn based on their [[Karma|past actions]].<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The ancient period of Indian philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Pooley|Rothenbuhler|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eY_2DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1468 1468]}} |4={{harvnb|Andrea|Overfield|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x5-aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 71]}} }}</ref> This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].{{sfn|Perrett|2016|loc=The ancient period of Indian philosophy}}{{sfn|Ruether|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MQFvAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} |
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==== Modern era ==== |
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[[File:Kant doerstling2.jpg|thumb|A painting of the influential modern philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] (in the blue coat) with his friends. Other figures include [[Christian Jakob Kraus]], [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel the Elder|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]] and [[Karl Gottfried Hagen]].]] |
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[[Early modern philosophy]] in the Western world begins with thinkers such as [[Thomas Hobbes]] and [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650).<ref name="diane">{{cite book|author=Collinson, Diane|title=Fifty Major Philosophers, A Reference Guide|page=125}}</ref> Following the rise of natural science, [[modern philosophy]] was concerned with developing a secular and rational foundation for knowledge and moved away from traditional structures of authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the Church. Major modern philosophers include [[Spinoza]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[David Hume|Hume]], and [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]. |
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The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and was characterized by the emergence of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism. They are known as the [[astika]]s and are [[Nyaya|Nyāyá]], [[Vaisheshika|Vaiśeṣika]], [[Samkhya|Sāṃkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Mīmāṃsā]], and [[Vedanta|Vedanta]].{{sfn|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The classical period of Indian philosophy, The medieval period of Indian philosophy}}{{sfn|Glenney|Silva|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gH6JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT77 77]}}{{sfn|Adamson|Ganeri|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NCbTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 101–109]}} The school of [[Advaita Vedanta]] developed later in this period. It claimed that [[Monism|everything is one]] and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an [[Maya (religion)|illusion]].{{sfn|Perrett|2016|loc=The medieval period of Indian philosophy}}{{sfn|Dalal|2021|loc=lead section, 2. Metaphysics}}{{sfn|Menon|loc=lead section}} The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by the encounter with Western thought.{{sfn|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian philosophy: a brief historical overview, The modern period of Indian philosophy}}{{sfn|EB staff|2023}} Various philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, [[Swami Vivekananda]] used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Banhatti|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jK5862eV7_EC&pg=PA151 151–154]}} |2={{harvnb|Bilimoria|2018|pp=529–531}} |3={{harvnb|Rambachan|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b9EJBQG3zqUC&pg=PA91 91–92]}} }}</ref> |
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[[19th-century philosophy]] (sometimes called [[late modern philosophy]]) was influenced by the wider 18th-century movement termed "[[the Enlightenment]]", and includes figures such as [[Hegel]], a key figure in [[German idealism]]; [[Kierkegaard]], who developed the foundations for [[existentialism]]; [[Thomas Carlyle]], representative of the [[great man theory]]; [[Nietzsche]], a famed anti-Christian; [[John Stuart Mill]], who promoted [[utilitarianism]]; [[Karl Marx]], who developed the foundations for [[communism]]; and the American [[William James]]. The 20th century saw the split between [[analytic philosophy]] and [[continental philosophy]], as well as philosophical trends such as [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]], [[existentialism]], [[logical positivism]], [[pragmatism]] and the [[linguistic turn]] (see [[Contemporary philosophy]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kenny |first=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qIkSDAAAQBAJ |title=The Rise of Modern Philosophy: A New History of Western Philosophy, Volume 3 |date=2006-06-29 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-875277-6 |language=en}}</ref> |
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=== Chinese === |
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{{main|Chinese philosophy}} |
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[[File:Half Portraits of the Great Sage and Virtuous Men of Old - Confucius.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Confucius|Confucius (551–479 BCE) was one of the earliest and most influential Chinese philophers]] |
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==== Pre-Islamic philosophy ==== |
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The regions of the [[Fertile Crescent]], [[Iran]] and [[Arabia]] are home to the earliest known philosophical wisdom literature.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} |
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Chinese philosophy encompasses the philosophical and intellectual heritage of [[China]]. Compared to the other main traditions, it placed less emphasis on questions of ultimate reality. It was more interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct and government.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=3, 70–71}} |2={{harvnb|EB staff|2017}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023}} |4={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |5={{harvnb|Mou|2009|pp=43–45}} }}</ref> It originated in the 6th century BCE when the schools of [[Confucianism]] and [[Daoism]] emerged. Confucian thought focused on different forms of moral [[virtue]]s and explored how they lead to harmony in society.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|EB staff|2017}} |2={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=70–76}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=1b. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) of the Analects}} |4={{harvnb|Boyd|Timpe|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OIskEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64–66]}} |5={{harvnb|Marshev|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DPQTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 100–101]}} }}</ref> Daoism broadened this focus to also include questions about the relation between humans and nature.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|EB staff|2017}} |2={{harvnb|Slingerland|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PA77 77–78]}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> The introduction of Buddhism to China in the following period resulted in the development of [[Chinese Buddhism|new forms of Buddhism]].{{sfn|Littlejohn|2023|loc=Early Buddhism in China}} |
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According to the [[Assyriology|assyriologist]] [[Marc Van de Mieroop]], [[Babylonia]]n philosophy was a highly developed system of thought with a unique approach to knowledge and a focus on writing, [[lexicography]], divination, and law.{{sfn|''Philosophy before the Greeks''|2015|pp=vii-viii, 187-188}} It was also a [[Multilingualism|bilingual]] intellectual culture, based on [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] and [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]].{{sfn|''Philosophy before the Greeks''|2015|p=218}} |
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[[File:History_of_civilization,_being_a_course_of_lectures_on_the_origin_and_development_of_the_main_institutions_of_mankind_(1887)_(14577423529).jpg|thumb|A page of ''The Maxims of Ptahhotep,'' traditionally attributed to the [[Vizier (Ancient Egypt)|Vizier]] [[Ptahhotep]] ({{c.|2375|lk=no}}–2350 BCE)]] |
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Early [[Wisdom literature]] from the Fertile Crescent was a genre that sought to instruct people on ethical action, practical living, and virtue through stories and proverbs. In [[Ancient Egypt]], these texts were known as ''[[sebayt]]'' ('teachings'), and they are central to our understandings of [[Ancient Egyptian philosophy]]. The most well known of these texts is ''[[The Maxims of Ptahhotep]].''<ref>{{cite book|last=Lichtheim|first=Miriam|author-link=Miriam Lichtheim |year=1976|title=Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume II: The New Kingdom|pages=61 ff|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-03615-8}}</ref> Theology and cosmology were central concerns in Egyptian thought. Perhaps the earliest form of a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] [[theology]] also emerged in Egypt, with the rise of the [[Atenism|Amarna theology (or Atenism)]] of [[Akhenaten]] (14th century BCE), which held that the solar creation deity [[Aten]] was the only god. This has been described as a "monotheistic revolution" by [[Egyptology|egyptologist]] [[Jan Assmann]], though it also drew on previous developments in Egyptian thought, particularly the "New Solar Theology" based around [[Amun|Amun-Ra]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Najovits|first=Simson|year=2004|title=Egypt, the Trunk of the Tree, A Modern Survey of and Ancient Land, Vol. II|page=131|location=New York|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0875862569}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite book|last=Assmann|first=Jan|year=2004|chapter-url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/2354/1/Assmann_Theological_responses_to_Amarna_2004.pdf|chapter=Theological Responses to Amarna|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518232700/http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/2354/1/Assmann_Theological_responses_to_Amarna_2004.pdf|archive-date=18 May 2020|url-status=live|editor-last1=Knoppers|editor-first1=Gary N.|editor-last2=Hirsch|editor-first2=Antoine|title=Egypt, Israel, and the Ancient Mediterranean World. Studies in Honor of Donald B. Redford|location=Leiden/Boston|pages=179–191}}</ref> These theological developments also influenced the post-Amarna [[New Kingdom of Egypt|Ramesside]] theology, which retained a focus on a single creative solar deity (though without outright rejection of other gods, which are now seen as manifestations of the main solar deity). This period also saw the development of the concept of the [[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul|''ba'']] (soul) and its relation to god.<ref name=":4"/> |
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The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. Of particular importance were the ideas of [[Karl Marx]] on [[class struggle]], [[socialism]], and [[communism]]. They led to the development of [[Chinese Marxism]] and resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape when [[Mao Zedong]] worked on their practical implementation in the form of a [[communist revolution]].<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Mou|2009|pp=473–480, 512–513}} |3={{harvnb|Qi|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nxWkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99–100]}} }}</ref> |
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[[Jewish philosophy]] and [[Christian philosophy]] are religious-philosophical traditions that developed both in the Middle East and in Europe, which both share certain early Judaic texts (mainly the [[Tanakh]]) and monotheistic beliefs. Jewish thinkers such as the [[Geonim]] of the [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]] and [[Maimonides]] engaged with Greek and Islamic philosophy. Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of [[Moses Mendelssohn]] who ushered in the [[Haskalah]] (the Jewish Enlightenment), [[Jewish existentialism]], and [[Reform Judaism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Frank |first1=Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2e_O1CbFwA8C |title=History of Jewish Philosophy |last2=Leaman |first2=Oliver |date=2005-10-20 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-89435-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bartholomew |first1=Craig G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4xe-AgAAQBAJ |title=Christian Philosophy: A Systematic and Narrative Introduction |last2=Goheen |first2=Michael W. |date=2013-10-15 |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-1-4412-4471-0 |language=en}}</ref> |
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The various traditions of [[Gnosticism]], which were influenced by both Greek and Abrahamic currents, originated around the first century and emphasized spiritual knowledge (''[[gnosis]]'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Churton |first=Tobias |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlwoDwAAQBAJ |title=Gnostic Philosophy: From Ancient Persia to Modern Times |date=2005-01-25 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-59477-767-7 |language=en}}</ref> |
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Pre-Islamic [[Iranian philosophy]] begins with the work of [[Zoroaster]], one of the first promoters of [[monotheism]] and of the [[Dualistic cosmology|dualism]] between good and evil.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nasr |first1=S. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bu3WAAAAMAAJ |title=An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, Vol. 2: Ismaili Thought in the Classical Age |last2=Aminrazavi |first2=Mehdi |last3=Jozi |first3=M. R. |date=2008-09-30 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-84511-542-5 |language=en}}</ref> This dualistic cosmogony influenced later Iranian developments such as [[Manichaeism]], [[Mazdakism]], and [[Zurvanism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keddie |first=Nikki R. |author-link=Nikki Keddie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5vnIBQAAQBAJ |title=Iran: Religion, Politics and Society: Collected Essays |date=2013-10-28 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-28041-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Blois |first=François |date=2000 |title=Dualism in Iranian and Christian Traditions |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25187928 |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1017/S1356186300011913 |jstor=25187928 |s2cid=162835432 |issn=1356-1863}}</ref> |
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==== Islamic philosophy ==== |
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{{See also|Islamic philosophy|}}[[File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_(Avicenna)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_(7423560860).jpg|right|thumb|An Iranian portrait of [[Avicenna]] on a Silver Vase. He was one of the most influential philosophers of the [[Islamic Golden Age]].]] |
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[[Islamic philosophy]] is the philosophical work originating in the [[Islamic culture|Islamic tradition]] and is mostly done in [[Arabic]]. It draws from the religion of Islam as well as from Greco-Roman philosophy. After the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], the [[Graeco-Arabic translation movement|translation movement]] (mid-eighth to the late tenth century) resulted in the works of Greek philosophy becoming available in Arabic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gutas|first=Dimitri|year=1998|title=Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early Abbasid Society (2nd-4th/8th-10th centuries)|publisher=Routledge|pages=1–26}}</ref> |
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[[Early Islamic philosophy]] developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions. This intellectual work inaugurated what is known as the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. The two main currents of early Islamic thought are [[Kalam]], which focuses on [[Islamic theology]], and [[Falsafa]], which was based on [[Aristotelianism]] and [[Neoplatonism]]. The work of Aristotle was very influential among philosophers such as [[Al-Kindi]] (9th century), [[Avicenna]] (980 – June 1037), and [[Averroes]] (12th century). Others such as [[Al-Ghazali]] were highly critical of the methods of the Islamic Aristotelians and saw their metaphysical ideas as heretical. Islamic thinkers like [[Ibn al-Haytham]] and [[Al-Biruni]] also developed a [[scientific method]], experimental medicine, a theory of optics, and a legal philosophy. [[Ibn Khaldun]] was an influential thinker in [[philosophy of history]]. |
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Islamic thought also deeply influenced European intellectual developments, especially through the commentaries of Averroes on Aristotle. The [[Mongol invasions of the Levant|Mongol invasions]] and the [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|destruction of Baghdad]] in 1258 are often seen as marking the end of the Golden Age.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cooper|first1=William W.|last2=Yue|first2=Piyu|year=2008|title=Challenges of the Muslim world: present, future and past|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing|isbn=978-0-444-53243-5}}</ref> Several schools of Islamic philosophy continued to flourish after the Golden Age, however, and include currents such as [[Illuminationist philosophy]], [[Sufi philosophy]], and [[Transcendent theosophy]]. |
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The 19th- and 20th-century [[Arab world]] saw the ''[[Nahda]]'' movement (literally meaning 'The Awakening'; also known as the 'Arab Renaissance'), which had a considerable influence on [[contemporary Islamic philosophy]]. |
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=== Eastern philosophy === |
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{{Main|Eastern philosophy||}} |
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==== Indian philosophy ==== |
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{{Main|Indian philosophy||}} |
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[[File:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|[[Adi Shankara]] is one of the most frequently studied [[Hindu]] philosophers.<ref>{{cite book|author=N.V. Isaeva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C|title=Shankara and Indian Philosophy|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-7914-1281-7|pages=1–5|oclc=24953669|access-date=11 November 2018|archive-date=14 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114040317/https://books.google.com/books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John Koller|chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781136696862/chapters/10.4324%2F9780203813010-17|title=Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-69685-5|editor=Chad Meister and Paul Copan|doi=10.4324/9780203813010|chapter=Shankara|access-date=13 November 2018|archive-date=12 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112223414/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781136696862/chapters/10.4324%2F9780203813010-17|url-status=live}}</ref>]] |
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[[Indian philosophy]] ({{lang-sa|{{IAST|darśana}}|lit=point of view', 'perspective}})<ref>{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=W. J.|year=2009|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095700856|chapter=darśana|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309015018/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095700856|archive-date=9 March 2021|url-status=live|title=Oxford Reference}} From: {{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-710|chapter=darśan(a)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903141043/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-710|archive-date=3 September 2020|url-status=live|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism|year=2009 |editor-last=Johnson|editor-first=W. J.|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780191726705|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001}}</ref> refers to the diverse philosophical traditions that emerged since the ancient times on the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Indian philosophy chiefly considers epistemology, theories of consciousness and theories of mind, and the physical properties of reality.<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-india/ | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=Epistemology in Classical Indian Philosophy | year=2021 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University }}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00343 | doi-access=free | title=How do Theories of Cognition and Consciousness in Ancient Indian Thought Systems Relate to Current Western Theorizing and Research? | year=2016 | last1=Sedlmeier | first1=Peter | last2=Srinivas | first2=Kunchapudi | journal=Frontiers in Psychology | volume=7 | page=343 | pmid=27014150 | pmc=4791389 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | url=https://science.thewire.in/society/history/erwin-schrodinger-quantum-mechanics-philosophy-of-physics-upanishads/ | title=What Erwin Schrödinger Said About the Upanishads – the Wire Science }}</ref> Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions. These include concepts such as [[Dharma|''dhárma'']], ''[[karma]]'', ''[[Pramana|pramāṇa]],'' ''[[duḥkha]], [[saṃsāra]]'' and ''[[Moksha|mokṣa]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Young|first=William A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GRoqAQAAMAAJ|title=The World's Religions: Worldviews and Contemporary Issues|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2005|isbn=978-0-13-183010-3|pages=61–64, 78–79|access-date=10 November 2018|archive-date=17 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217032152/https://books.google.com/books?id=GRoqAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mittal|first1=Sushil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpxADwAAQBAJ|title=Religions of India: An Introduction|last2=Thursby|first2=Gene|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2017|isbn=978-1-134-79193-4|pages=3–5, 15–18, 53–55, 63–67, 85–88, 93–98, 107–15|access-date=11 November 2018|archive-date=17 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217032143/https://books.google.com/books?id=XpxADwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>'' |
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Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the [[Upanishads]] of the [[Vedic period#Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE)|later Vedic period]] (1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of [[Historical Vedic religion|Brahmanism]]. Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them. [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] originated at the end of the [[Vedic period]], while the various traditions grouped under [[Hinduism]] mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions. Hindus generally classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox ([[Āstika and nāstika|''āstika'']]) or heterodox (''nāstika'') depending on whether they accept the authority of the [[Vedas]] and the theories of ''[[brahman]]'' and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|''ātman'']] found therein.<ref>{{cite book|first=John |last=Bowker|title=The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=5fSQQgAACAAJ}}|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press, Incorporated|isbn=978-0-19-866242-6|page=259}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Doniger, Wendy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ|title=On Hinduism|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-936008-6|page=46|author-link=Wendy Doniger|access-date=25 December 2016|archive-date=30 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130223555/https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called "orthodox" or "[[Hinduism|Hindu]]" traditions, are often classified into six ''[[Hindu philosophy|darśanas]]'' or philosophies:[[Samkhya|Sānkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Nyaya|Nyāya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mīmāṃsā|Mimāmsā]] and [[Vedanta|Vedānta]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kesarcodi-Watson|first=Ian|year=1978|title=Hindu Metaphysics and Its Philosophies: Śruti and Darsána|journal=International Philosophical Quarterly|volume=18|issue=4|pages=413–432|doi=10.5840/ipq197818440}}</ref> |
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The doctrines of the Vedas and Upanishads were interpreted differently by these six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], with varying degrees of overlap. They represent a "collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection", according to Chadha (2015).<ref>{{cite book|last=Chadha|first=M.|year=2015|title=The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion|editor-last=Oppy|editor-first=G.|editor-link=Graham Oppy|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1844658312|pages=127–28}}</ref> They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.<ref name="Sharma1990p1" group="lower-roman">{{cite book|author=Sharma|first=Arvind|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jKewCwAAQBAJ|title=A Hindu Perspective on the Philosophy of Religion|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=1990|isbn=978-1-349-20797-8|access-date=11 November 2018|archive-date=12 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112222617/https://books.google.com/books?id=jKewCwAAQBAJ|url-status=live|quote=The attitude towards the existence of God varies within the Hindu religious tradition. This may not be entirely unexpected given the tolerance for doctrinal diversity for which the tradition is known. Thus of the six orthodox systems of Hindu philosophy, only three address the question in some detail. These are the schools of thought known as Nyaya, Yoga and the theistic forms of Vedanta.|pages=1–2}}</ref> |
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Hindu philosophers of the six orthodox schools developed systems of epistemology (''[[pramana]]'') and investigated topics such as metaphysics, ethics, psychology (''[[guṇa]]''), [[hermeneutics]], and [[soteriology]] within the framework of the Vedic knowledge, while presenting a diverse collection of interpretations.<ref name="frazierintrop2">{{cite book|last1=Frazier|first1=Jessica|author-link=Jessica Frazier|url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz|title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies|date=2011|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/n15 1]–15|url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Carl|year=2007|title=The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|isbn=978-0813540689|pages=101–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Deutsch|first=Eliot S.|author-link=Eliot Deutsch|year=2000|chapter=Karma as a 'Convenient Fiction' in the Advaita Vedānta|pages=245–48|title=Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy|volume=4|editor-last=Perrett|editor-first=R.|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0815336112}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Grimes|first=John A.|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|date=January 1996 |location=Albany|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|isbn=978-0791430675|page=238}}</ref> The commonly named six orthodox schools were the competing philosophical traditions of what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" of [[History of Hinduism|classical Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hiltebeitel|first=Alf|author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel|year=2007|chapter=Hinduism|title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture|editor-last=Kitagawa|editor-first=J.|editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa|location=London|publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Minor|first=Robert|year=1986|title=Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavad Gita|location=Albany|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|isbn=0-88706-297-0|pages=74–75, 81}}</ref> |
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<ref>{{cite web|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|year=2018|orig-year=1998|title=Bhagavad Gita|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhagavadgita|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=10 November 2018|archive-date=21 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821140609/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhagavadgita|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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There are also other schools of thought which are often seen as "Hindu", though not necessarily orthodox (since they may accept different scriptures as normative, such as the [[Tantras (Hinduism)|Shaiva Agamas and Tantras]]), these include different schools of [[Shaivism|Shavism]] such as [[Pashupata Shaivism|Pashupata]], [[Shaiva Siddhanta]], [[Kashmir Shaivism|non-dual tantric Shavism]] (i.e. Trika, Kaula, etc.).<ref>Cowell and Gough (1882, Translators), ''The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya'', Trubner's Oriental Series.</ref> |
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[[File:Medieval Jain temple Anekantavada doctrine artwork.jpg|thumb|The parable of the blind men and the elephant illustrates the important Jain doctrine of [[Anekantavada|anēkāntavāda]].]] |
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The "Hindu" and "Orthodox" traditions are often contrasted with the "unorthodox" traditions (''nāstika,'' literally "those who reject"), though this is a label that is not used by the "unorthodox" schools themselves. These traditions reject the Vedas as authoritative and often reject major concepts and ideas that are widely accepted by the orthodox schools (such as ''Ātman'', ''Brahman'', and [[Ishvara|''Īśvara'']]).<ref name="bilimoriaastika">{{cite book|last=Bilimoria|first=Puruṣottama|year=2000|chapter=Hindu Doubts About God: Towards a Mīmāṃsā Deconstruction|title=Indian Philosophy|editor-last=Perrett|editor-first=Roy W.|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1135703226|page=88}}</ref> These unorthodox schools include Jainism (accepts ''ātman'' but rejects ''Īśvara,'' Vedas and ''Brahman''), Buddhism (rejects all orthodox concepts except rebirth and karma), [[Charvaka|Cārvāka]] (materialists who reject even rebirth and karma) and [[Ājīvika]] (known for their doctrine of fate).<ref name="bilimoriaastika"/><ref name="bhattacarv">{{cite book|last=Bhattacharya|first=R|year=2011|title=Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata|publisher=Anthem|isbn=978-0857284334|pages=53, 94, 141–142}}</ref><ref name="bronkhorst">{{cite journal|last=Bronkhorst|first=Johannes|author-link=Johannes Bronkhorst|year=2012|title=Free will and Indian philosophy|journal=Antiquorum Philosophia |location=Roma Italy|volume=6|pages=19–30}}</ref><<ref>{{cite book|last=Lochtefeld|first=James|chapter=Ajivika|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M|year=2002 |publisher=Rosen Publishing.|isbn=978-0823931798|page=22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Basham|first=A. L.|year=2009|title=History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120812048|at=Chapter 1}}</ref><ref group="lower-roman">{{cite journal|last=Wynne|first=Alexander|year=2011|title=The ātman and its negation|journal=Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies|volume=33|number=1–2|pages=103–05|quote=The denial that a human being possesses a 'self' or 'soul' is probably the most famous Buddhist teaching. It is certainly its most distinct, as has been pointed out by [[Gunapala Piyasena Malalasekera|G.P. Malalasekera]]: 'In its denial of any real permanent Soul or Self, Buddhism stands alone.' A similar modern Sinhalese perspective has been expressed by [[Walpola Rahula Thero|Walpola Rahula]]: 'Buddhism stands unique in the history of human thought in denying the existence of such a Soul, Self or Ātman.' The 'no Self' or 'no soul' doctrine ({{Lang-sa|anātman}}; {{Lang-pi|anattan}}) is particularly notable for its widespread acceptance and historical endurance. It was a standard belief of virtually all the ancient schools of Indian Buddhism (the notable exception being the Pudgalavādins), and has persisted without change into the modern era.… [B]oth views are mirrored by the modern Theravādin perspective of [[Mahasi Sayadaw]] that 'there is no person or soul' and the modern Mahāyāna view of the fourteenth Dalai Lama that '[t]he Buddha taught that…our belief in an independent self is the root cause of all suffering.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jayatilleke|first=K. N.|author-link=K. N. Jayatilleke|year=2010|title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge|isbn=978-8120806191|pages=246–49, note 385 onwards}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Dundas|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Dundas|year=2002|title=The Jains|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0415266055|pages=1–19, 40–44}}</ref> |
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[[Jain philosophy]] is one of the only two surviving "unorthodox" traditions (along with Buddhism). It generally accepts the concept of a permanent soul (''[[jiva]]'') as one of the five ''[[Āstika and nāstika|astikayas]]'' (eternal, infinite categories that make up the substance of existence). The other four being [[Dharma|''dhárma'']], ''[[adharma]]'', ''[[Akasha|ākāśa]]'' ('space'), and ''[[pudgala]]'' ('matter'). Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hemacandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quNpKVqABGMC|title=The Lives of the Jain Elders|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-283227-6|pages=258–60|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=23 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223030943/https://books.google.com/books?id=quNpKVqABGMC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Tiwari|first=Kedar Nath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jb0rCQD9NcoC|title=Comparative Religion|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1983|isbn=978-81-208-0293-3|pages=78–83|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=24 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224020536/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jb0rCQD9NcoC&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Some of the most important elements of Jain philosophy are the [[Karma in Jainism|Jain theory of karma]], the doctrine of nonviolence ([[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahiṃsā]]) and the theory of "many-sidedness" or [[Anekantavada|Anēkāntavāda]]. The ''[[Tattvartha Sutra]]'' is the earliest known, most comprehensive and authoritative compilation of Jain philosophy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jaini|first=Padmanabh S.|title=The Jaina Path of Purification|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C|pages=81–83|year=1998|orig-year=1979|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|isbn=81-208-1578-5|author-link=Padmanabh Jaini|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=16 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216120741/https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Umāsvāti|author-link=Umāsvāti|year=1994|orig-year={{Circa|2nd}} – 5th century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rw4RwN9Q1kC|title=That Which Is: Tattvartha Sutra|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806142119/https://books.google.ca/books?id=0Rw4RwN9Q1kC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb|archive-date=6 August 2020|translator-last=Tatia|translator-first=N.|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|isbn=978-0-06-068985-8|pages=xvii–xviii}}</ref> |
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==== Buddhist philosophy ==== |
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{{Main|Buddhist philosophy}} |
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[[File:Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery,_2013.webm|thumb|Monks debating at [[Sera monastery]], Tibet, 2013. According to Jan Westerhoff, "public debates constituted the most important and most visible forms of philosophical exchange" in ancient Indian intellectual life.{{sfn|Westerhoff|2018|p=13}}]] |
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Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought of [[Gautama Buddha]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] between 6th and 4th century BCE) and is preserved in the [[early Buddhist texts]]. It originated in the Indian region of [[Magadha]] and later spread to the rest of the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[East Asia]], [[Tibet]], [[Central Asia]], and [[Southeast Asia]]. In these regions, Buddhist thought developed into different philosophical traditions which used various languages (like [[Classical Tibetan|Tibetan]], [[Classical Chinese|Chinese]] and [[Pali]]). As such, Buddhist philosophy is a [[Transculturalism|trans-cultural]] and international phenomenon. |
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The dominant Buddhist philosophical traditions in [[East Asian Buddhism|East Asian]] nations are mainly based on Indian [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. The [[Theravāda Abhidhamma|philosophy of the Theravada]] school is dominant in [[Southeast Asia]]n countries like [[Sri Lanka]], [[Burma]] and [[Thailand]]. |
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Because [[Avidyā (Buddhism)|ignorance]] to the true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering (''[[dukkha]]''), Buddhist philosophy is concerned with epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and psychology. Buddhist philosophical texts must also be understood within the context of [[Buddhist meditation|meditative practices]] which are supposed to bring about certain cognitive shifts.{{sfn|Westerhoff|2018|p=8}} Key innovative concepts include the [[Four Noble Truths]] as an analysis of ''dukkha'', [[Impermanence|''anicca'']] (impermanence), and ''[[anatta]]'' (non-self).<ref group="lower-roman">{{cite book|author=Gombrich, Richard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ|title=Theravada Buddhism|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=978-1-134-90352-8|access-date=10 November 2018|archive-date=16 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190816142222/https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live|quote=All phenomenal existence [in Buddhism] is said to have three interlocking characteristics: impermanence, suffering and lack of soul or essence.|page=47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Buswell|first1=Robert E. Jr.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|last2=Lopez|first2=Donald S. Jr.|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|pages=42–47|access-date=10 November 2018|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517114246/https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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After the death of the Buddha, various groups began to systematize his main teachings, eventually developing comprehensive philosophical systems termed ''[[Abhidharma]]''.{{sfn|Westerhoff|2018|p=37}} Following the Abhidharma schools, Indian [[Mahayana]] philosophers such as [[Nagarjuna]] and [[Vasubandhu]] developed the theories of ''[[śūnyatā]]'' ('emptiness of all phenomena') and [[Yogachara#Vijñapti-mātra|''vijñapti-matra'']] ('appearance only'), a form of phenomenology or [[transcendental idealism]]. The [[Dignāga]] school of ''[[Pramana|pramāṇa]]'' ('means of knowledge') promoted a sophisticated form of [[Buddhist logico-epistemology|Buddhist epistemology]]. |
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There were numerous schools, sub-schools, and traditions of Buddhist philosophy in ancient and medieval India. According to Oxford professor of Buddhist philosophy [[Jan Westerhoff]], the major Indian schools from 300 BCE to 1000 CE were:{{sfn|Westerhoff|2018|p=xxiv}} the [[Mahāsāṃghika]] tradition (now extinct), the [[Sthavira nikāya|Sthavira]] schools (such as [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]], [[Vibhajyavāda]] and [[Pudgalavada|Pudgalavāda]]) and the [[Mahayana]] schools. Many of these traditions were also studied in other regions, like Central Asia and China, having been brought there by Buddhist missionaries. |
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After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, some of these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the [[Tibetan Buddhist]], [[East Asian Buddhist]] and [[Theravada Buddhist]] traditions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dreyfus|first=Georges B. J.|year=1997|title=Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations (Suny Series in Buddhist Studies)|page=22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=JeeLoo Liu|title=Tian-tai Metaphysics vs. Hua-yan Metaphysics A Comparative Study}}</ref> |
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==== East Asian philosophy ==== |
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{{Main|Chinese philosophy|Korean philosophy|Japanese philosophy|Vietnamese philosophy|Eastern philosophy}} |
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[[File:'The Three Vinegar Tasters' by Kano Isen'in, c. 1802-1816, Honolulu Museum of Art, 6156.1.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Vinegar tasters|The Vinegar Tasters]] (Japan, [[Edo period]], 1802–1816) by Kanō Isen'in, depicting three prominent philosophical figures in [[Eastern philosophy|East Asian thought]]: [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Confucius]] and [[Laozi]]]] |
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[[File:延宾馆.JPG|right|thumb|Statue of the Neo-Confucian scholar [[Zhu Xi]] at the [[White Deer Grotto Academy]] in [[Mount Lu|Lushan Mountain]]]] |
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East Asian philosophical thought began in [[History of China#Ancient China|Ancient China]], and [[Chinese philosophy]] begins during the [[Western Zhou]] Dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the "[[Hundred Schools of Thought]]" flourished (6th century to 221 BCE).<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Garfield|editor-first1=Jay L.|editor-last2=Edelglass|editor-first2=William|year=2011|chapter=Chinese Philosophy|title=The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780195328998}}</ref><ref name="pe">{{cite book|last=Ebrey|first=Patricia|author-link=Patricia Buckley Ebrey|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|location=New York|page=42}}</ref> This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major philosophical schools of China such as [[Confucianism]] (also known as Ruism), [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], and [[Daoism|Taoism]] as well as numerous other less influential schools like [[Mohism]] and [[School of Naturalists|Naturalism]]. These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such [[Tao]], [[Yin and yang]], [[Ren (Confucianism)|Ren]] and [[Li (Confucianism)|Li]]. |
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These schools of thought further developed during the [[Han dynasty|Han]] (206 BCE – 220 CE) and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] (618–907 CE) eras, forming new philosophical movements like ''[[Xuanxue]]'' (also called ''Neo-Taoism''), and [[Neo-Confucianism]]. Neo-Confucianism was a syncretic philosophy, which incorporated the ideas of different Chinese philosophical traditions, including Buddhism and Taoism. Neo-Confucianism came to dominate the education system during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1297), and its ideas served as the philosophical basis of the [[imperial exams]] for the [[Scholar-officials|scholar official class]]. Some of the most important Neo-Confucian thinkers are the Tang scholars [[Han Yu]] and [[Li Ao (philosopher)|Li Ao]] as well as the Song thinkers [[Zhou Dunyi]] (1017–1073) and [[Zhu Xi]] (1130–1200). Zhu Xi compiled the Confucian canon, which consists of the [[Four Books]] (the ''[[Great Learning]]'', the ''[[Doctrine of the Mean]]'', the ''[[Analects]]'' of Confucius, and the ''[[Mencius (book)|Mencius]]''). The Ming scholar [[Wang Yangming]] (1472–1529) is a later but important philosopher of this tradition as well. |
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Buddhism began arriving in China during the Han Dynasty, through a [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|gradual Silk road transmission]],<ref>{{cite news |first=Barbara |last=O'Brien |title=How Buddhism Came to China: A History of the First Thousand Years |url=https://www.learnreligions.com/buddhism-in-china-the-first-thousand-years-450147 |access-date=21 January 2021 |work=Learn Religions |date=June 25, 2019 |language=en |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127042320/https://www.learnreligions.com/buddhism-in-china-the-first-thousand-years-450147 |url-status=live }}</ref> and through native influences developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/[[Zen]]) which spread throughout the [[East Asian cultural sphere]]. |
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Chinese culture was highly influential on the traditions of other East Asian states, and its philosophy directly influenced [[Korean philosophy]], [[Vietnamese philosophy]] and [[Japanese philosophy]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese Religions and Philosophies |url=https://asiasociety.org/chinese-religions-and-philosophies |website=Asia Society |access-date=21 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116092034/https://asiasociety.org/chinese-religions-and-philosophies |url-status=live }}</ref> During later Chinese dynasties like the [[Ming Dynasty]] (1368–1644), as well as in the Korean [[Joseon dynasty]] (1392–1897), a resurgent [[Neo-Confucianism]] led by thinkers such as [[Wang Yangming]] (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. In Japan, the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] (1603–1867) was also strongly influenced by Confucian philosophy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Perez|first=Louis G.|year=1998|title=The History of Japan|pages=57–59|location=Westport, CT|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-30296-1}}</ref> Confucianism continues to influence the ideas and worldview of the nations of the [[East Asian cultural sphere|Chinese cultural sphere]] today. |
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In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy. [[Chinese Marxist philosophy]] developed under the influence of [[Mao Zedong]], while a Chinese pragmatism developed under [[Hu Shih]]. The old traditional philosophies also began to reassert themselves in the 20th century. For example, [[New Confucianism]], led by figures such as [[Xiong Shili]], has become quite influential. Likewise, [[Humanistic Buddhism]] is a recent modernist Buddhist movement. |
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Modern Japanese thought meanwhile developed under strong Western influences such as the study of Western Sciences ([[Rangaku]]) and the modernist [[Meirokusha]] intellectual society, which drew from European enlightenment thought and promoted liberal reforms as well as Western philosophies like Liberalism and Utilitarianism. Another trend in modern Japanese philosophy was the "National Studies" ({{Lang|ja-latn|[[Kokugaku]]}}) tradition. This intellectual trend sought to study and promote ancient Japanese thought and culture. {{Lang|ja-latn|Kokugaku|italic=no}} thinkers such as [[Motoori Norinaga]] sought to return to a pure Japanese tradition which they called [[Shinto]] that they saw as untainted by foreign elements. |
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During the 20th century, the [[Kyoto School]], an influential and unique Japanese philosophical school, developed from Western [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] and Medieval Japanese Buddhist philosophy such as that of [[Dogen]]. |
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=== African philosophy === |
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{{Main|African philosophy|Ancient Egyptian philosophy||Ethiopian philosophy||Ubuntu philosophy|}} |
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[[File:DisputeBetweenAManAndHisBa-Soul Photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin.png|thumb|300px|Merged photos depicting a copy of the ancient Egyptian papyrus "The Dispute Between a Man and His Ba", written in [[hieratic]] text. Thought to date to the Middle Kingdom, likely the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|12th Dynasty]].]] |
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[[File:Zera_Yacob.jpg|thumb|Painting of Zera Yacob from [[Claude Sumner]]'s ''Classical Ethiopian Philosophy'']] |
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African philosophy is philosophy produced by [[African people]], philosophy that presents African worldviews, ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African philosophical methods. Modern African thought has been occupied with [[Ethnophilosophy]], that is, defining the very meaning of African philosophy and its unique characteristics and what it means to be [[African people|African]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Janz|first=Bruce B.|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0739136682|title=Philosophy in an African Place|location=Plymouth, UK|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|pages=74–79}}</ref> |
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The philosophical tradition in Africa derived from both ancient Egypt and scholarly texts in [[History of Africa|medieval Africa]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Imbo |first1=Samuel Oluoch |title=An introduction to African philosophy |date=1998 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=0847688410 |page=41}}</ref> |
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During the 17th century, [[Ethiopian philosophy]] developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by [[Zera Yacob (philosopher)|Zera Yacob]]. Another early African philosopher was [[Anton Wilhelm Amo]] ({{c.|1703|lk=no}}–1759) who became a respected philosopher in Germany. Distinct African philosophical ideas include [[Ujamaa]], the [[Bantu peoples in South Africa|Bantu]] idea of [[Bantu Philosophy|'Force']], [[Négritude]], [[Pan-Africanism]] and [[Ubuntu (philosophy)|Ubuntu]]. Contemporary African thought has also seen the development of Professional philosophy and of [[Africana philosophy]], the philosophical literature of the [[African diaspora]] which includes currents such as [[black existentialism]] by [[African-Americans]]. Some modern African thinkers have been influenced by [[Marxism]], [[African-American literature]], [[Critical theory]], [[Critical race theory]], [[Postcolonialism]] and [[African feminism|Feminism]]. |
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=== Indigenous American philosophy === |
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{{Main|Indigenous American philosophy}} |
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[[File:Tlamatini_observe_stars_-_Codex_Mendoza.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Tlamatini]] (Aztec philosopher) observing the stars, from the [[Codex Mendoza]]]] |
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[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous-American]] philosophical thought consists of a wide variety of beliefs and traditions among different American cultures. Among some of [[Native Americans in the United States|U.S. Native American]] communities, there is a belief in a metaphysical principle called the '[[Great Spirit]]' ([[Siouan languages|Siouan]]: ''[[Wakan Tanka|wakȟáŋ tȟáŋka]]''; [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]]: [[Gitche Manitou|''gitche manitou'']]). Another widely shared concept was that of ''[[orenda]]'' ('spiritual power'). According to Whiteley (1998), for the Native Americans, "mind is critically informed by transcendental experience (dreams, visions and so on) as well as by reason."<ref name="rep.routledge.com">{{cite book|last=Whiteley|first=Peter M.|year=1998|chapter-url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/native-american-philosophy/v-1|chapter=Native American philosophy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806154717/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/native-american-philosophy/v-1|archive-date=6 August 2020|url-status=live|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy|title-link=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|doi=10.4324/9780415249126-N078-1|isbn=9780415250696 }}</ref> The practices to access these transcendental experiences are termed ''[[shamanism]]''. Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants.<ref name="rep.routledge.com"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Pierotti|first=Raymond|year=2003|chapter-url=http://www.se.edu/nas/files/2013/03/5thNAScommunities.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404090034/http://www.se.edu/nas/files/2013/03/5thNAScommunities.pdf|archive-date=4 April 2016|chapter=Communities as both Ecological and Social entities in Native American thought|title=Native American Symposium ''5''|location=Durant, OK|publisher=[[Southeastern Oklahoma State University]]}}</ref> |
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In [[Mesoamerica]], [[Aztec philosophy|Nahua philosophy]] was an intellectual tradition developed by individuals called ''[[tlamatini]]'' ('those who know something')<ref>{{cite book|last1=Portilla|first1=Miguel León|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OI9J7R-R1awC&q=120|title=Use of "Tlamatini" in ''Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind – Miguel León Portilla''|year=1990|isbn=9780806122953|access-date=December 12, 2014|archive-date=17 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217032135/https://books.google.com/books?id=OI9J7R-R1awC&q=120|url-status=live}}</ref> and its ideas are preserved in various [[Aztec codices]] and fragmentary texts. Some of these philosophers are known by name, such as [[Nezahualcoyotl (tlatoani)|Nezahualcoyotl]], [[Aquiauhtzin]], [[Xayacamach]], [[Tochihuitzin coyolchiuhqui]] and Cuauhtencoztli.<ref name=":5">{{cite thesis|author=Leonardo Esteban Figueroa Helland|year=2012|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/79564237.pdf|title=Indigenous Philosophy and World Politics: Cosmopolitical Contributions from across the Americas|type=PhD dissertation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118140515/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/79564237.pdf|archive-date=18 November 2021|url-status=live|publisher=Arizona State University}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last=Maffie|first=James|date=March 2002|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.878.7615&rep=rep1&type=pdf|title=Why Care about Nezahualcoyotl? Veritism and Nahua Philosophy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118140518/https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.878.7615&rep=rep1&type=pdf|archive-date=18 November 2021|journal=Philosophy of the Social Sciences|volume=32|number=1|pages=71–91|publisher=Sage Publications|doi=10.1177/004839310203200104 |citeseerx=10.1.1.878.7615 |s2cid=144901245 }}</ref> These authors were also poets and some of their work has survived in the original [[Nahuatl]].<ref name=":5"/><ref name=":1"/> |
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Aztec philosophers developed theories of metaphysics, epistemology, values, and aesthetics. Aztec ethics was focused on seeking ''tlamatiliztli'' ('knowledge', 'wisdom') which was based on moderation and balance in all actions as in the [[Nahuas|Nahua]] proverb "the middle good is necessary".<ref name="iep.utm.edu" /> The Nahua worldview posited the concept of an ultimate universal energy or force called ''[[Ōmeteōtl]]'' ('Dual Cosmic Energy') which sought a way to live in balance with a constantly changing, "slippery" world. The theory of ''[[Teotl]]'' can be seen as a form of [[Pantheism]].<ref name="iep.utm.edu">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Aztec Philosophy|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/aztec/|date=|access-date=25 December 2016|archive-date=25 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525172948/https://www.iep.utm.edu/aztec/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to James Maffie, Nahua metaphysics posited that teotl is "a single, vital, dynamic, vivifying, eternally self-generating and self-conceiving as well as self-regenerating and self-reconceiving sacred energy or force".<ref name=":1"/> This force was seen as the all-encompassing life force of the universe and as the universe itself.<ref name=":1"/> |
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[[File:Pachacuteckoricancha.jpg|thumb|Depiction of [[Pachacuti]] worshipping [[Inti]] (god Sun) at [[Coricancha]], in the 17th century second chronicles of [[Martín de Murúa]]. Pachacuti was a major Incan ruler, author and poet.]] |
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The [[Inca civilization]] also had an elite class of philosopher-scholars termed the ''amawtakuna'' or ''amautas'' who were important in the [[Inca education]] system as teachers of philosophy, theology, astronomy, poetry, law, music, morality and history.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last=Yeakel|first=John A.|date=Fall 1983|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/288024952.pdf|title=Accountant-Historians of the Incas|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112153051/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/288024952.pdf|archive-date=12 November 2021|url-status=live|journal=Accounting Historians Journal|volume=10|issue=2|pages=39–51 |doi=10.2308/0148-4184.10.2.39 }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last1=Adames|first1=Hector Y.|last2=Chavez-Dueñas|first2=Nayeli Y.|year=2016|title=Cultural Foundations and Interventions in Latino/a Mental Health: History, Theory and within Group Differences|pages=20–21|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Young Inca nobles were educated in these disciplines at the state college of Yacha-huasi in [[Cusco|Cuzco]], where they also learned the art of the [[quipu]].<ref name=":2"/> Incan philosophy (as well as the broader category of Andean thought) held that the universe is animated by a single dynamic life force (sometimes termed ''camaquen'' or ''camac'', as well as ''upani'' and ''amaya'').<ref name=":6">{{cite book|contributor-last=Maffie|contributor-first=James|year=2013|contribution=Pre-Columbian Philosophies|last1=Nuccetelli|first1=Susana|last2=Schutte|first2=Ofelia|last3=Bueno|first3=Otávio|title=A Companion to Latin American Philosophy|publisher=Wiley Blackwell}}</ref> This singular force also arises as a set of dual complementary yet opposite forces.<ref name=":6"/> These "complementary opposites" are called [[yanantin]] and [[Yanantin#Masintin|masintin]]. They are expressed as various polarities or dualities (such as male–female, dark–light, life and death, above and below) which interdependently contribute to the harmonious whole that is the universe through the process of reciprocity and mutual exchange called ''ayni''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Webb|first=Hillary S.|year=2012|title=Yanantin and Masintin in the Andean World: Complementary Dualism in Modern Peru}}</ref><ref name=":6"/> The Inca worldview also included the belief in a [[Creator deity|creator God]] ([[Viracocha]]) and [[reincarnation]].<ref name=":3"/> |
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== Branches of philosophy == |
== Branches of philosophy == |
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* Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, ''jt. eds''. ''The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought''. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. ''N.B''.: First published in England under the title, "''The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought''". {{ISBN|978-0-06-010578-5}} |
* Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, ''jt. eds''. ''The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought''. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. ''N.B''.: First published in England under the title, "''The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought''". {{ISBN|978-0-06-010578-5}} |
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* [[William L. Reese|Reese, W.L.]] ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought''. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. {{ISBN|978-0-391-00688-1}} |
* [[William L. Reese|Reese, W.L.]] ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought''. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. {{ISBN|978-0-391-00688-1}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Adamson |first1=Peter |last2=Taylor |first2=Richard C. |title=The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy |date=9 December 2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-49469-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFMiAwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=7 June 2023 |archive-date=7 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607072853/https://books.google.com/books?id=iFMiAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite web |last1=Adamson |first1=Peter |title=al-Kindi |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-kindi/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 June 2023 |date=2020 |archive-date=21 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521181245/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-kindi/ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Verene |first1=Donald Phillip |title=The History of Philosophy: A Reader's Guide |date=20 June 2008 |publisher=Northwestern University Press |isbn=978-0-8101-5197-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023 |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525075441/https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Zack |first1=Naomi |title=The Handy Philosophy Answer Book |date=1 September 2009 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |isbn=978-1-57859-285-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lSgf2OuCpcoC |language=en}} |
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Philosophy (from Greek: φιλοσοφία, philosophia, 'love of wisdom')[1][2] is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those concerning existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language.[3][4] Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation.[5][i]
Historically, philosophy encompassed all bodies of knowledge and a practitioner was known as a philosopher.[6] Natural philosophy, the origins of which trace back to Ancient Greece, encompasses astronomy, medicine, and physics.[7][8] In the transition to the modern era, various areas of investigation that were traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines such as psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics.
Today, major subfields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, which is concerned with the fundamental nature of existence and reality; epistemology, which studies the nature of knowledge and belief; ethics, which is concerned with moral value; and logic, which studies the rules of inference that allow one to derive conclusions from true premises. The history of philosophy is itself a philosophical undertaking. Other notable subfields include philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, political philosophy, aesthetics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of mind.
Etymology
The word "philosophy" comes from the ancient Greek φίλος, phílos: "love"; and σοφία, sophía: "wisdom".[9] Some sources claim the term was coined by Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE),[10][11] although this theory is disputed by others.[12][13][14] The word entered the English language by way of multiple sources, but primarily from the French philosophie, which is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia.[15]
Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a very wide sense, which encompassed the individual sciences, like physics or mathematics, as its sub-disciplines, but the contemporary usage is more narrow and brings one into the realm of academic philosophy.[16][17][18]
In the oldest surviving history of philosophy, Lives and Opinions of the Eminent Philosophers (3rd century), Diogenes Laërtius presents a three-part division of ancient Greek philosophical inquiry:[19]
- Natural philosophy (i.e., physics, from Greek: ta physika, lit. 'things having to do with physis [nature]') was the study of the constitution and processes of transformation in the physical world.[20]
- Moral philosophy (i.e., ethics, from êthika, 'having to do with character, disposition, manners') was the study of goodness, right and wrong, justice and virtue.[21]
- Metaphysical philosophy (i.e., logic, from logikós, 'of or pertaining to reason or speech') was the study of existence, causation, god, logic, forms, and other abstract objects.
In Against the Logicians, the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus detailed the variety of ways in which the ancient Greek philosophers had divided philosophy, noting that this three-part division was agreed to by Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and the Stoics.[22] The Academic Skeptic philosopher Cicero also followed this tripartite distinction.[23]
This division is not obsolete. In the 19th century, however, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.[24] For this reason, our vocabulary has changed to reflect the fact that many parts of ancient philosophy are now autonomous sciences in their own right; for example:
- Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, and cosmology.
- Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, while still including value theory (e.g., ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, etc.).
- Metaphysical philosophy has generated formal sciences such as logic, mathematics, and philosophy of science, while still including epistemology, ontology, and so forth.
For instance, Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) – now classified as a book of physics – uses the term natural philosophy in its own self-description because, at the time, that term still encompassed disciplines such as astronomy, medicine, and physics, which later became associated with the modern sciences.[7]
Conceptions of philosophy
General conception
The practice of philosophy is characterized by various general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.[25][26][16] It requires thinking "as hard and as clearly...about some of the most interesting and enduring problems that human minds have ever encountered"; many of these we cannot avoid, but are unable to answer once and for all.[27]
For instance, according to the 18th-century philosopher Immanuel Kant, the task of philosophy is united by four questions: (1) What can I know?; (2) What should I do?; (3) What may I hope?; and (4) What is the human being?[28][29] His entire career, as he conceived it, was devoted to systematically addressing these four questions.[30]
Bertrand Russell offers this justification for undertaking the labor of philosophical thought:
The man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason.[31]
Aristotle, more generously, opens his Metaphysics by explaining the need for philosophy with the claim that "All human beings by nature stretch themselves out toward knowing".[32] In a further passage, he adds, it is "by way of wondering [that] people both now and at first begin to philosophize, wondering first about the strange things near at hand, then going forward little by little in this way and coming to impasses about greater things".[33]
On its way into modern English from c.1175 Old French and Anglo-Norman, "philosophy" has acquired, and to some extent still retains, the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, and the basic limits of human understanding".[34]
Academic definitions
Attempts to define philosophy in more precise and specific terms are typically controversial.[26][16] Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy, while others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.[35][36][37] Often, they are only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.[38][35]
Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus more on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.[35][39][40] Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.[35]
Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.[16] In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic philosophers, like Willard Van Orman Quine, philosophy is an empirical yet very abstract science that is concerned with very wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.[35][41] Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not made the type of progress as seen in other sciences.[35][42][43] This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.[16][36][44] In this sense, philosophy is the midwife of the sciences.[16]
Other definitions focus more on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of language.[35][39] According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts.[35][40][45]
Another presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, for example, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of natural language.[16][38][46]
Some phenomenologists, such as Edmund Husserl and his followers, characterize philosophy as the science of essences.[38][44][47]
Many other conceptions of philosophy do not clearly fall into any of the aforementioned categories. An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities, has been rehabilitated by philosophers such as Pierre Hadot and Michel Foucault.[48][49] This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life.[50] A closely related approach identifies the development and articulation of worldviews as the principal task of philosophy, i.e., to express how things on the grand scale hang together and which practical stance we should take towards them.[25][35][51] Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking in order to emphasize its reflective nature.[35][40]
Historical overview
The history of philosophy studies the development of philosophical thought. It aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines.[52][53][54] Some theorists see it as a part of intellectual history, but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and philosophically relevant today.[55] The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation. However, some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes myths, religious teachings, and proverbial lore.[56] The main traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic-Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy, the latter two of which are often referred to under the broader heading of Eastern philosophy. Other influential philosophical traditions are Japanese philosophy, Latin American philosophy, and African philosophy.[57]
Western
Western philosophy covers philosophical thought linked to the geographical region and cultural heritage of the Western world.[58][59] It originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the Presocratics. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the cosmos as a whole.[60][61][62] The philosophy following them was shaped by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. They expanded the range of topics to questions like how people should act, how to arrive at knowledge, and what the nature of reality and mind is.[63][64] The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements including like Epicureanism, Stoicism, Skepticism, and Neoplatonism.[65][66][67] The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate Christian doctrine.[68][69][70]
The Renaissance period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in various schools of Ancient philosophy, in particular Platonism. The idea of humanism also emerged in this period.[71] The following modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the role of reason and sensory experience.[72][73] Many of these innovations were used in the Enlightenment movement to challenge traditional authorities.[74][75] Various attempts to develop all-inclusive systems of philosophy were made in the later part of the modern period, for example, by German idealism.[76] Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of formal logic and the focus on the role of language as well as philosophical movements like phenomenology and pragmatism.[77][78]
Arabic-Persian
Arabic-Persian philosophy is the philosophical tradition of Arabic- and Persian-speaking regions.[79][80] It started in the early 9th century CE and had its peak period during the Islamic Golden Age. It was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophers and employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the Quran.[81]
![Portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/220px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg)
Al-Kindi is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between reason and faith.[82] Avicenna also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.[83][84] Al-Ghazali was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed critique of philosophy and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place beside the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.[85] Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the Islamic Golden Age, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.[86][87] Mulla Sadra is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.[88][89]
Indian
Indian philosophy covers philosophical thought that originated on the Indian subcontinent.[90][91] One of its distinguishing features is its integrated exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment.[92][93] It started around 900 BCE when the religious scriptures known as the Vedas were written. They contemplate issues concerning the relation between the self and ultimate reality as well as the question of how souls are reborn based on their past actions.[94] This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like Buddhism and Jainism.[95][96]
The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and was characterized by the emergence of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism. They are known as the astikas and are Nyāyá, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta.[97][98][99] The school of Advaita Vedanta developed later in this period. It claimed that everything is one and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion.[100][101][102] The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by the encounter with Western thought.[103][104] Various philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, Swami Vivekananda used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.[105]
Chinese
![Painting of Confucius](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg/220px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg)
Chinese philosophy encompasses the philosophical and intellectual heritage of China. Compared to the other main traditions, it placed less emphasis on questions of ultimate reality. It was more interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct and government.[106] It originated in the 6th century BCE when the schools of Confucianism and Daoism emerged. Confucian thought focused on different forms of moral virtues and explored how they lead to harmony in society.[107] Daoism broadened this focus to also include questions about the relation between humans and nature.[108] The introduction of Buddhism to China in the following period resulted in the development of new forms of Buddhism.[109]
The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. Of particular importance were the ideas of Karl Marx on class struggle, socialism, and communism. They led to the development of Chinese Marxism and resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape when Mao Zedong worked on their practical implementation in the form of a communist revolution.[110]
Branches of philosophy
Philosophical questions can be grouped into various branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions.
These divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are sometimes linked under the general heading of value theory as they involve a normative or evaluative aspect.[111] Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural or social sciences, religion, or mathematics.[112]
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the "critical reflection on art, culture, and nature".[113][114] It addresses the nature of art, beauty, and taste; enjoyment, emotional values, perception; and the creation and appreciation of beauty.[115] It is more precisely defined as the study of sensory or sensory-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.[116] Its major divisions are art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the Cubist aesthetic.[117]
Ethics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/JohnStuartMill.jpg/220px-JohnStuartMill.jpg)
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes good and bad conduct, right and wrong values, and good and evil. Its primary investigations include exploring how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality. It also includes investigating whether there is a best way to live or a universal moral standard, and if so, how we come to learn about it. The main branches of ethics are normative ethics, meta-ethics, and applied ethics.[119]
The three main views in contemporary philosophical ethics about what constitute moral actions are:[119]
- Consequentialism, which judges actions based on their consequences.[120] One such view is utilitarianism, which judges actions based on the net happiness (or pleasure) and/or lack of suffering (or pain) that they produce.
- Deontology, which judges actions based on whether they are in accordance with one's moral duty.[120] In the standard form defended by Immanuel Kant, deontology is concerned with whether a choice respects the moral agency of other people, regardless of its consequences.[120]
- Virtue ethics, which judges actions based on the moral character of the agent who performs them and whether they conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do.[120]
Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge.[121] Epistemologists examine putative sources of knowledge, including perceptual experience, reason, memory, and testimony. They also investigate questions about the nature of truth, belief, justification, and rationality.[122]
Philosophical skepticism, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge, has been a topic of interest throughout the history of philosophy. It arose early in Presocratic philosophy and became formalized with Pyrrho, the founder of the earliest Western school of philosophical skepticism. It features prominently in the works of modern philosophers René Descartes and David Hume and has remained a central topic in contemporary epistemological debates.[122]
One central debate in contemporary epistemology is about the conditions required for a belief to constitute knowledge, which might include truth and justification. This debate was largely the result of attempts to solve the Gettier problem, according to which well justified reasons for a belief turn out to be false.[122] Another common subject of contemporary debates is the regress problem, which occurs when trying to offer proof or justification for any belief, statement, or proposition. The problem is that whatever the source of justification may be, that source must either be without justification (in which case it must be treated as an arbitrary foundation for belief), or it must have some further justification (in which case justification must either be the result of circular reasoning, as in coherentism, or the result of an infinite regress, as in infinitism).[122]
Metaphysics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Aristotle%2C_Metaphysics%2C_Incunabulum.jpg/200px-Aristotle%2C_Metaphysics%2C_Incunabulum.jpg)
Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes and causation and the relationship between mind and body.[123] Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being, along with the philosophy of space and time.
Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity. Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity, while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity. Particulars are objects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to abstract objects, such as numbers, and universals, which are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of debate.
Logic
Logic is the study of reasoning and argument.
Deductive reasoning is when, given certain premises, conclusions are unavoidably implied.[124] Rules of inference are used to infer conclusions such as, modus ponens, where given "A" and "If A then B", then "B" must be concluded.
Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences,[125] social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science. Sub-fields include mathematical logic, philosophical logic, modal logic, computational logic, and non-classical logics.
Mind and language
Philosophy of language explores the nature, origins, and use of language. Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body, as typified by disputes between reductive materialism and dualism. In recent years, this branch has become related to cognitive science.
Philosophy of science
The philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Many of its subdivisions correspond to specific branches of science. For example, philosophy of biology deals specifically with the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences.
Political philosophy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg/220px-Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg)
Political philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the state. It includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the citizen.
Philosophy of religion
Philosophy of religion deals with questions that involve religion and religious ideas from a philosophically neutral perspective (as opposed to theology which begins from religious convictions).[126] Traditionally, religious questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper, and the idea of a separate field only arose in the 19th century.[ii]
Issues include the existence of God, the relationship between reason and faith, questions of religious epistemology, the relationship between religion and science, how to interpret religious experiences, questions about the possibility of an afterlife, the problem of religious language, the existence of souls, and responses to religious pluralism and diversity.
Methods of philosophy
Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.[127][128][129]
A great variety of methods has been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.[130][131][132]
The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.[128][133][134] This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence, how much support it offers, and how to acquire it.[130][128][135]
Various disagreements on the level of philosophical theories have their source in methodological disagreements and the discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.[136][129][128] Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.[131][137]
Conceptual analysis is a well-known method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their fundamental constituents.[138][45][25] Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on common sense. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw interesting conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.[132][139][140] It is very similar to how ordinary language philosophy tackles philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.[129][141][142]
Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions, i.e., non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.[136][143] For example, they play an important role in thought experiments, which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.[144][145][138] The method of reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated in order to arrive at a coherent perspective.[136][146][147]
Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true or false.[148][149]
Phenomenologists seek knowledge about the realm of appearances. They do so by suspending their judgments about the external world in order to focus on how things appear independent of their underlying reality, a technique known as epoché.[150][129]
Experimental philosophy is of rather recent origin. Its methods differ from most other methods of philosophy in that it tries to answer philosophical questions by gathering empirical data in ways similar to social psychology and the cognitive sciences.[151][152]
Outside the academic profession
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Hipatia67.jpg/170px-Hipatia67.jpg)
Some of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically by working as professors who teach, research and write in academic institutions.[153] However, most students of academic philosophy contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.[154][155] For example, public figures who have degrees in philosophy include comedians Steve Martin and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malick, Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger, technology entrepreneur Peter Thiel, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer, Jeopardy! host Alex Trebek, and US vice presidential candidate Carly Fiorina.[156][157] Curtis White has argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social sciences.[158]
Recent efforts to avail the general public to the work and relevance of philosophers include the million-dollar Berggruen Prize, first awarded to Charles Taylor in 2016.[159] Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has negatively affected the discipline.[160]
Women in philosophy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg/180px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg)
Although men have generally dominated philosophical discourse, women philosophers have engaged in the discipline throughout history. The list of female philosophers throughout history is vast. Ancient examples include Hipparchia of Maroneia (active c. 325 BCE) and Arete of Cyrene (active 5th–4th centuries BCE). Some women philosophers were accepted during the medieval and modern eras, but none became part of the Western canon until the 20th and 21st century, when many suggest that G.E.M. Anscombe, Hannah Arendt, bell hooks, Simone de Beauvoir, Simone Weil, and Susanne Langer entered the canon.[161][162][163]
In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and the US began admitting women, producing more female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities, with women making up somewhere between 17% and 30% of philosophy faculty according to some studies.[164]
Prominent 21st century philosophers include Judith Butler, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Martha Nussbaum, Onora O'Neill, and Nancy Fraser.[165] [166]
See also
References
Notes
- ^ Quinton, Anthony. The Ethics of Philosophical Practice. p. 666.
Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Everyone has some general conception of the nature of the world in which they live and of their place in it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those of others, with more or less success and without any theory of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Everyone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most inclusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic form, the rules or principles involved.
In Honderich 1995. - ^ Wainwright, William J. (2005). "Introduction". In Wainwright, W. J. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Religion. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–11. ISBN 978-0-19-803158-1. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. p. 3:
The expression 'philosophy of religion' did not come into general use until the nineteenth century, when it was employed to refer to the articulation and criticism of humanity's religious consciousness and its cultural expressions in thought, language, feeling, and practice.
Citations
- ^ "philosophy (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ The definition of philosophy is: "1. orig., love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2. theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe". Webster's New World Dictionary (Second College ed.).
- ^ "philosophy | Definition, Systems, Fields, Schools, & Biographies". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
- ^ "Philosophy". Lexico. University of Oxford Press. 2020. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
- ^ Adler, Mortimer J. (2000). How to Think About the Great Ideas: From the Great Books of Western Civilization. Chicago, Ill.: Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9412-3.
- ^ "The English word "philosophy" is first attested to c. 1300, meaning "knowledge, body of knowledge". Harper, Douglas (2020). "philosophy (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ^ a b Lindberg 2007, p. 3.
- ^ "Epistemology in Classical Indian Philosophy". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021.
- ^ "philosophy (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 13 September 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
- ^ Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1877). Tusculan Disputations. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 166. Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
From whence all who occupied themselves in the contemplation of nature were both considered and called wise men; and that name of theirs continued to the age of Pythagoras, who is reported to have gone to Phlius, as we find it stated by Heraclides Ponticus, a very learned man, and a pupil of Plato, and to have discoursed very learnedly and copiously on certain subjects with Leon, prince of the Phliasii; and when Leon, admiring his ingenuity and eloquence, asked him what art he particularly professed, his answer was, that he was acquainted with no art, but that he was a philosopher. Leon, surprised at the novelty of the name, inquired what he meant by the name of philosopher, and in what philosophers differed from other men; on which Pythagoras replied, "That the life of man seemed to him to resemble those games which were celebrated with the greatest possible variety of sports and the general concourse of all Greece. For as in those games there were some persons whose object was glory and the honor of a crown, to be attained by the performance of bodily exercises, so others were led thither by the gain of buying and selling, and mere views of profit; but there was likewise one class of persons, and they were by far the best, whose aim was neither applause nor profit, but who came merely as spectators through curiosity, to observe what was done, and to see in what manner things were carried on there. And thus, said he, we come from another life and nature unto this one, just as men come out of some other city, to some much frequented mart; some being slaves to glory, others to money; and there are some few who, taking no account of anything else, earnestly look into the nature of things; and these men call themselves studious of wisdom, that is, philosophers: and as there it is the most reputable occupation of all to be a looker-on without making any acquisition, so in life, the contemplating things, and acquainting one's self with them, greatly exceeds every other pursuit of life."
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{{cite book}}
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This does not of course amount to saying that the simile goes back to Pythagoras himself, but only that the Greek ideal of philosophia and theoria (for which we may compare Herodotus's attribution of these activities to Solon I, 30) was at a fairly early date annexed by the Pythagoreans for their master
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Further reading
General introduction
- Aristotle (1941). Richard McKeon (ed.). The Basic Works of Aristotle. New York: Random House.
- Blumenau, Ralph. Philosophy and Living. ISBN 978-0-907845-33-1
- Craig, Edward. Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285421-6
- Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, Mastering Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-333-69343-8
- Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19-511552-9
- Sinclair, Alistair J. What is Philosophy? An Introduction, 2008, ISBN 978-1-903765-94-4
- Sober, Elliott. (2001). Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-189869-1
- Solomon, Robert C. Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-534-16708-0
- Warburton, Nigel. Philosophy: The Basics. ISBN 978-0-415-14694-4
- Nagel, Thomas. What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19-505292-3
- Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1, 2, & 3) by Louis P. Pojman
- Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.
- Tarnas, Richard. The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View. ISBN 978-0-345-36809-6
Topical introductions
African
- Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. An Introduction to African Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-8476-8841-8
Eastern
- A Source Book in Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore
- Hamilton, Sue. Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285374-5
- Kupperman, Joel J. Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts. ISBN 978-0-19-513335-6
- Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. Eastern Philosophy For Beginners. ISBN 978-0-86316-282-4
- Smart, Ninian. World Philosophies. ISBN 978-0-415-22852-7
- Copleston, Frederick. Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev. ISBN 978-0-268-01569-5
Islamic
- Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi
- Leaman, Oliver (14 April 2000). A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-7456-1960-6.
- Corbin, Henry (23 June 2014) [1993]. History Of Islamic Philosophy. Translated by Sherrard, Liadain; Sherrard, Philip. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-19888-6.
- Aminrazavi, Mehdi Amin Razavi; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Nasr, PH.D., Seyyed Hossein (16 December 2013). The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-78105-6.
Historical introductions
General
- Oizerman, Teodor (1988). The Main Trends in Philosophy. A Theoretical Analysis of the History of Philosophy (PDF). translated by H. Campbell Creighton, M.A., Oxon (2nd ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. ISBN 978-5-01-000506-1. Archived from the original (DjVu, etc.) on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2011. First published in Russian as Главные философские направления.
- Higgins, Kathleen M. and Solomon, Robert C. A Short History of Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19-510196-6
- Durant, Will, Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers, Pocket, 1991, ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4
- Oizerman, Teodor (1973). Problems of the History of Philosophy. translated from Russian by Robert Daglish (1st ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011. First published in Russian as Проблемы историко-философской науки.
Ancient
- Knight, Kelvin. Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre. ISBN 978-0-7456-1977-4
Medieval
- The Phenomenology Reader by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney
- Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). Metaphysics: An Anthology. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
- Husserl, Edmund; Welton, Donn (1999). The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental Phenomenology. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21273-3.
Modern and contemporary
- The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill by Edwin Arthur
- European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche by Monroe Beardsley
- Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition) by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom
- Curley, Edwin, A Spinoza Reader, Princeton, 1994, ISBN 978-0-691-00067-1
- Bullock, Alan, R.B. Woodings, and John Cumming, eds. The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers, in series, Fontana Original[s]. Hammersmith, Eng.: Fontana Press, 1992 [1983]. xxv, 867 p. ISBN 978-0-00-636965-3
- Scruton, Roger. A Short History of Modern Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-415-26763-2
- Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings by James Baillie
- Appiah, Kwame Anthony. Thinking it Through – An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy, 2003, ISBN 978-0-19-513458-2
- Critchley, Simon. Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285359-2
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External links
- Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- PhilPapers – a comprehensive directory of online philosophical articles and books by academic philosophers
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy