Orders of magnitude (energy)
This list compares various energies in joules (J), organized by order of magnitude.
Factor (Joules) | SI prefix | Value | Item |
---|---|---|---|
10−34 | 6.626×10−34 J | Energy of a 1-hertz radio photon.[1] | |
10−33 | 2×10−33 J | Average kinetic energy of translational motion of a molecule at the lowest temperature reached, 100 picokelvins as of 2003[update][2] | |
10−28 | 6.6×10−28 J | Energy of a typical AM radio photon (1 MHz) (4×10−9 eV)[3] | |
10−24 | Yocto- (yJ) | 1.6×10−24 J | Energy of a typical microwave oven photon (2.45 GHz) (1×10−5 eV)[4][5] |
10−23 | 2×10−23 J | Average kinetic energy of translational motion of a molecule in the Boomerang Nebula, the coldest place known outside of a laboratory, at a temperature of 1 kelvin[6][7] | |
10−22 | 2-3000×10−22 J | Energy of infrared light photons[8] | |
10−21 | Zepto- (zJ) | 1.7×10−21 J | 1 kJ/mol, converted to energy per molecule[9] |
2.1×10−21 J | Thermal energy in each degree of freedom of a molecule at 25 °C (kT/2) (0.01 eV)[10] | ||
2.856×10−21 J | By Landauer's principle, the minimum amount of energy required at 25 °C to change one bit of information | ||
3–7×10−21 J | Energy of a van der Waals interaction between atoms (0.02–0.04 eV)[11][12] | ||
4.1×10−21 J | The "kT" constant at 25 °C, a common rough approximation for the total thermal energy of each molecule in a system (0.03 eV)[13] | ||
7–22×10−21 J | Energy of a hydrogen bond (0.04 to 0.13 eV)[11][14] | ||
10−20 | 4.5×10−20 J | Upper bound of the mass-energy of a neutrino in particle physics (0.28 eV)[15][16] | |
10−19 | 1.6×10−19 J | ≈1 electronvolt (eV)[17] | |
3–5×10−19 J | Energy range of photons in visible light[18][19] | ||
3–14×10−19 J | Energy of a covalent bond (2–9 eV)[11][20] | ||
5–200×10−19 J | Energy of ultraviolet light photons[8] | ||
10−18 | Atto- (aJ) | ||
10−17 | 2-2000×10−17 J | Energy range of X-ray photons[8] | |
10−16 | |||
10−15 | Femto- (fJ) | ||
10−14 | > 2×10−14 J | Energy of gamma ray photons[8] | |
2.7×10−14 J | Upper bound of the mass-energy of a muon neutrino[21][22] | ||
8.2×10−14 J | Rest mass-energy of an electron[23] | ||
10−13 | 1.6×10−13 J | 1 megaelectronvolt (MeV)[24] | |
10−12 | Pico- (pJ) | 2.3×10−12 J | Kinetic energy of neutrons produced by D-T fusion, used to trigger fission (14.1 MeV)[25][26] |
10−11 | 3.4×10−11 J | Average total energy released in the nuclear fission of one uranium-235 atom (215 MeV)[27][28] | |
10−10 | 1.5030×10−10 J | Rest mass-energy of a proton[29] | |
1.505×10−10 J | Rest mass-energy of a neutron[30] | ||
1.6×10−10 J | 1 gigaelectronvolt (GeV)[31] | ||
3×10−10 J | Rest mass-energy of a deuteron[32] | ||
6×10−10 J | Rest mass-energy of an alpha particle[33] | ||
10−9 | Nano- (nJ) | 1.6×10−9 J | 10 GeV[34] |
8×10−9 J | Initial operating energy per beam of the CERN Large Electron Positron Collider in 1989 (50 GeV)[35][36] | ||
10−8 | 1.3×10−8 J | Mass-energy of a W boson (80.4 GeV)[37][38] | |
1.5×10−8 J | Mass-energy of a Z boson (91.2 GeV)[39][40] | ||
1.6×10−8 J | 100 GeV[41] | ||
2×10−8 J | Mass-energy of the Higgs Boson (125.1 GeV)[42] | ||
6.4×10−8 J | Operating energy per proton of the CERN Super Proton Synchrotron accelerator in 1976[43][44] | ||
10−7 | 1×10−7 J | ≡ 1 erg[45] | |
1.6×10−7 J | 1 TeV (teraelectronvolt),[46] about the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito[47] | ||
10−6 | Micro- (µJ) | 1.04×10−6 J | Energy per proton in the CERN Large Hadron Collider in 2015 (6.5 TeV)[48][49] |
10−5 | |||
10−4 | |||
10−3 | Milli- (mJ) | ||
10−2 | Centi- (cJ) | ||
10−1 | Deci- (dJ) | 1.1×10−1 J | Energy of an American half-dollar falling 1 metre[50][51] |
100 | J | 1 J | ≡ 1 N·m (Newton–metre) |
1 J | ≡ 1 W·s (Watt-second) | ||
1 J | Kinetic energy produced as an extra small apple (~100 grams[52]) falls 1 meter against Earth's gravity[53] | ||
1 J | Energy required to heat 1 gram of dry, cool air by 1-degree Celsius[54] | ||
1.4 J | ≈ 1 ft·lbf (foot-pound force)[45] | ||
4.184 J | ≡ 1 thermochemical calorie (small calorie)[45] | ||
4.1868 J | ≡ 1 International (Steam) Table calorie[55] | ||
8 J | Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin theoretical upper limit for the energy of a cosmic ray coming from a distant source[56][57] | ||
101 | Deca- (daJ) | 5×101 J | The most energetic cosmic ray ever detected[58] was most likely a single proton traveling only slightly slower than the speed of light.[59] |
102 | 1×102 J | Flash energy of a typical pocket camera electronic flash capacitor (100–400 µF @ 330 V)[60][61] | |
3×102 J | Energy of a lethal dose of X-rays[62] | ||
3×102 J | Kinetic energy of an average person jumping as high as they can[63][64][65] | ||
3.3×102 J | Energy to melt 1 g of ice[66] | ||
> 3.6×102 J | Kinetic energy of 800 g[67] standard men's javelin thrown at > 30 m/s[68] by elite javelin throwers[69] | ||
5–20×102 J | Energy output of a typical photography studio strobe light in a single flash[70] | ||
6×102 J | Kinetic energy of 2 kg[71] standard men's discus thrown at 24.4 m/s[citation needed] by the world record holder Jürgen Schult[72] | ||
6×102 J | Use of a 10-watt flashlight for 1-minute | ||
7.5×102 J | A power of 1 horsepower applied for 1 second[45] | ||
7.8×102 J | Kinetic energy of 7.26 kg[73] standard men's shot thrown at 14.7 m/s[citation needed] by the world record holder Randy Barnes[74] | ||
8.01×102 | Amount of work needed to lift a man with an average weight (81.7 kg) one meter above earth (or any planet with earth gravity) | ||
103 | Kilo- (kJ) | 1.1×103 J | ≈ 1 British thermal unit (BTU), depending on the temperature[45] |
1.4×103 J | Total solar radiation received from the Sun by 1 square meter at the altitude of Earth's orbit per second (solar constant)[75] | ||
1.8×103 J | Kinetic energy of M16 rifle bullet (5.56×45mm NATO M855, 4.1 g fired at 930 m/s)[76] | ||
2.3×103 J | Energy to vaporize 1 g of water into steam[77] | ||
3×103 J | Lorentz force can crusher pinch[78] | ||
3.4×103 J | Kinetic energy of world-record men's hammer throw (7.26 kg[79] thrown at 30.7 m/s[80] in 1986)[81] | ||
3.6×103 J | ≡ 1 W·h (Watt-hour)[45] | ||
4.2×103 J | Energy released by explosion of 1 gram of TNT[45][82] | ||
4.2×103 J | ≈ 1 food Calorie (large calorie) | ||
~7×103 J | Muzzle energy of an elephant gun, e.g. firing a .458 Winchester Magnum[83] | ||
9×103 J | Energy in an alkaline AA battery[84] | ||
104 | 1.7×104 J | Energy released by the metabolism of 1 gram of carbohydrates[85] or protein[86] | |
3.8×104 J | Energy released by the metabolism of 1 gram of fat[87] | ||
4–5×104 J | Energy released by the combustion of 1 gram of gasoline[88] | ||
5×104 J | Kinetic energy of 1 gram of matter moving at 10 km/s[89] | ||
105 | 3×105 J—15×105 J | Kinetic energy of an automobile at highway speeds (1 to 5 tons[90] at 89 km/h or 55 mph)[91] | |
5×105 J | Kinetic energy of 1 gram of a meteor hitting Earth[92] | ||
106 | Mega- (MJ) | 1×106 J | Kinetic energy of a 2 tonne[90] vehicle at 32 metres per second (115 km/h or 72 mph)[93] |
1.2×106 J | Approximate food energy of a snack such as a Snickers bar (280 food calories)[94] | ||
3.6×106 J | = 1 kWh (kilowatt-hour) (used for electricity)[45] | ||
4.2×106 J | Energy released by explosion of 1 kilogram of TNT[45][82] | ||
8.4×106 J | Recommended food energy intake per day for a moderately active woman (2000 food calories)[95][96] | ||
107 | 1×107 J | Kinetic energy of the armor-piercing round fired by the assault guns of the ISU-152 tank[97][citation needed] | |
1.1×107 J | Recommended food energy intake per day for a moderately active man (2600 food calories)[95][98] | ||
3.7×107 J | $1 of electricity at a cost of $0.10/kWh (the US average retail cost in 2009)[99][100][101] | ||
4×107 J | Energy from the combustion of 1 cubic meter of natural gas[102] | ||
4.2×107 J | Caloric energy consumed by Olympian Michael Phelps on a daily basis during Olympic training[103] | ||
6.3×107 J | Theoretical minimum energy required to accelerate 1 kg of matter to escape velocity from Earth's surface (ignoring atmosphere)[104] | ||
108 | 1×108 J | Kinetic energy of a 55 tonne aircraft at typical landing speed (59 m/s or 115 knots)[citation needed] | |
1.1×108 J | ≈ 1 therm, depending on the temperature[45] | ||
1.1×108 J | ≈ 1 Tour de France, or ~90 hours[105] ridden at 5 W/kg[106] by a 65 kg rider[107] | ||
7.3×108 J | ≈ Energy from burning 16 kilograms of oil (using 135 kg per barrel of light crude)[citation needed] | ||
109 | Giga- (GJ) | 1.10×109 J | Energy in an average lightning bolt[108] (thunder) |
1.1×109 J | Magnetic stored energy in the world's largest toroidal superconducting magnet for the ATLAS experiment at CERN, Geneva[109] | ||
1.2×109 J | Inflight 100-ton Boeing 757-200 at 300 knots (154 m/s) | ||
1.4x109 J | Theoretical minimum amount of energy required to melt a tonne of steel (380 kWh)[110][111] | ||
2x109 J | Energy of an ordinary 61 liter gasoline tank of a car.[88][112][113] | ||
2×109 J | Planck energy, the unit of energy in Planck units[114] | ||
3×109 J | Inflight 125-ton Boeing 767-200 flying at 373 knots (192 m/s) | ||
3.3×109 J | Approximate average amount of energy expended by a human heart muscle over an 80-year lifetime[115][116] | ||
4.2×109 J | Energy released by explosion of 1 ton of TNT. | ||
4.5×109 J | Average annual energy usage of a standard refrigerator[117][118] | ||
6.1×109 J | ≈ 1 bboe (barrel of oil equivalent)[119] | ||
1010 | 2.3×1010 J | Kinetic energy of an Airbus A380 at cruising speed (560 tonnes at 562 knots or 289 m/s)[citation needed] | |
4.2×1010 J | ≈ 1 toe (ton of oil equivalent)[119] | ||
5×1010 J | Yield energy of a Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb, the second most powerful non-nuclear weapon ever designed[120][121] | ||
7.3×1010 J | Energy consumed by the average U.S. automobile in the year 2000[122][123][124] | ||
8.6×1010 J | ≈ 1 MW·d (megawatt-day), used in the context of power plants[125] | ||
8.8×1010 J | Total energy released in the nuclear fission of one gram of uranium-235[27][28][126] | ||
1011 | |||
1012 | Tera- (TJ) | 3.4×1012 J | Maximum fuel energy of an Airbus A330-300 (97,530 liters[127] of Jet A-1[128])[129] |
3.6×1012 J | 1 GW·h (gigawatt-hour)[130] | ||
4×1012 J | Electricity generated by one 20-kg CANDU fuel bundle assuming ~29%[131] thermal efficiency of reactor[132][133] | ||
6.4×1012 J | Energy contained in jet fuel in a Boeing 747-100B aircraft at max fuel capacity (183,380 liters[134] of Jet A-1[128])[135] | ||
1013 | 1.1×1013 J | Energy of the maximum fuel an Airbus A380 can carry (320,000 liters[136] of Jet A-1[128])[137] | |
1.2×1013 J | Orbital kinetic energy of the International Space Station (417 tonnes[138] at 7.7 km/s[139])[140] | ||
6.3×1013 J | Yield of the Little Boy atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima in World War II (15 kilotons)[141][142] | ||
9×1013 J | Theoretical total mass-energy of 1 gram of matter[143] | ||
1014 | 6×1014 J | Energy released by an average hurricane in 1 second[144] | |
1015 | Peta- (PJ) | > 1015 J | Energy released by a severe thunderstorm[145] |
1×1015 J | Yearly electricity consumption in Greenland as of 2008[146][147] | ||
4.2×1015 J | Energy released by explosion of 1 megaton of TNT[45][148] | ||
1016 | 1×1016 J | Estimated impact energy released in forming Meteor Crater[citation needed] | |
1.1×1016 J | Yearly electricity consumption in Mongolia as of 2010[146][149] | ||
9×1016 J | Mass-energy in 1 kilogram of antimatter (or matter)[150] | ||
1017 | 1×1017 J | Energy released on the Earth's surface by the magnitude 9.1–9.3 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake[151] | |
1.7×1017 J | Total energy from the Sun that strikes the face of the Earth each second[152] | ||
2.1×1017 J | Yield of the Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever tested (50 megatons)[153][154] | ||
4.2×1017 J | Yearly electricity consumption of Norway as of 2008[146][155] | ||
4.5×1017 J | Approximate energy needed to accelerate one ton to one-tenth of the speed of light | ||
8×1017 J | Estimated energy released by the eruption of the Indonesian volcano, Krakatoa, in 1883[156][157] | ||
1018 | Exa- (EJ) | 1.4×1018 J | Yearly electricity consumption of South Korea as of 2009[146][158] |
1019 | 1.4×1019 J | Yearly electricity consumption in the U.S. as of 2009[146][159] | |
1.4×1019J | Yearly electricity production in the U.S. as of 2009[160][161] | ||
5×1019 J | Energy released in 1-day by an average hurricane in producing rain (400 times greater than the wind energy)[144] | ||
6.4×1019 J | Yearly electricity consumption of the world as of 2008[update][162][163] | ||
6.8×1019 J | Yearly electricity generation of the world as of 2008[update][162][164] | ||
1020 | 5x1020 J | Total world annual energy consumption in 2010[165][166] | |
8×1020 J | Estimated global uranium resources for generating electricity 2005[167][168][169][170] | ||
1021 | Zetta- (ZJ) | 6.9×1021 J | Estimated energy contained in the world's natural gas reserves as of 2010[165][171] |
7.9×1021 J | Estimated energy contained in the world's petroleum reserves as of 2010[165][172] | ||
1022 | 1.5×1022J | Total energy from the Sun that strikes the face of the Earth each day[152][173] | |
2.4×1022 J | Estimated energy contained in the world's coal reserves as of 2010[165][174] | ||
2.9×1022 J | Identified global uranium-238 resources using fast reactor technology[167] | ||
3.9×1022 J | Estimated energy contained in the world's fossil fuel reserves as of 2010[165][175] | ||
4×1022 J | Estimated total energy released by the magnitude 9.1–9.3 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake[176] | ||
1023 | |||
2.2×1023 J | Total global uranium-238 resources using fast reactor technology[167] | ||
5×1023 J | Approximate energy released in the formation of the Chicxulub Crater in the Yucatán Peninsula[177] | ||
1024 | Yotta- (YJ) | 5.5×1024 J | Total energy from the Sun that strikes the face of the Earth each year[152][178] |
1025 | 6×1025 J | Energy released by a typical solar flare | |
1026 | 1.3×1026 J | Conservative estimate of the energy released by the impact that created the Caloris basin on Mercury[citation needed] | |
3.8×1026 J | Total energy output of the Sun each second[179] | ||
1027 | |||
1028 | 3.8×1028 J | Kinetic energy of the Moon in its orbit around the Earth (counting only its velocity relative to the Earth)[180][181] | |
1029 | 2.1×1029 J | Rotational energy of the Earth[182][183][184] | |
1030 | 1.8×1030 J | Gravitational binding energy of Mercury | |
1031 | 3.3×1031 J | Total energy output of the Sun each day[179][185] | |
1032 | 2×1032 J | Gravitational binding energy of the Earth[186] | |
1033 | 2.7×1033 J | Earth's kinetic energy in its orbit[187] | |
1034 | 1.2×1034 J | Total energy output of the Sun each year[179][188] | |
1039 | 6.6×1039 J | Theoretical total mass-energy of the Moon | |
1041 | 5.4×1041 J | Theoretical total mass-energy of the Earth[189][190] | |
6.87×1041 J | Gravitational binding energy of the Sun[191] | ||
1043 | 5×1043 J | Total energy of all gamma rays in a typical gamma-ray burst[192][193] | |
1044 | 1–2×1044 J | Estimated energy released in a supernova,[194] sometimes referred to as a foe | |
1.2×1044 J | Approximate lifetime energy output of the Sun. | ||
1045 | (1.1±0.2)×1045 J | Brightest observed hypernova ASASSN-15lh[195] | |
few times×1045 J | Beaming-corrected 'True' total energy (Energy in gamma rays+relativistic kinetic energy) of hyper-energetic Gamma Ray Burst[196][197][198][199][200] | ||
1046 | 1×1046 J | Estimated energy released in a hypernova[201] | |
1047 | 1.8×1047 J | Theoretical total mass-energy of the Sun[202][203] | |
5.4×1047 J | Mass-energy emitted as gravitational waves during the merger of two black holes, originally about 30 Solar masses each, as observed by LIGO[204] | ||
8.8×1047 J | GRB 080916C - the most powerful Gamma-Ray Burst (GRB) ever recorded - total 'apparent'/isotropic (not corrected for beaming) energy output estimated at 8.8 × 1047 joules (8.8 × 1054 erg), or 4.9 times the sun’s mass turned to energy.[205] | ||
1053 | 6x1053 J | Total mechanical energy or enthalpy in the powerful AGN outburst in the RBS 797[206] | |
1054 | 3x1054 J | Total mechanical energy or enthalpy in the powerful AGN outburst in the Hercules A (3C 348)[207] | |
1055 | 1055 J | Total mechanical energy or enthalpy in the powerful AGN outburst in the MS 0735.6+7421 | |
1058 | 4×1058 J | Visible mass-energy in our galaxy, the Milky Way[208][209] | |
1059 | 1×1059 J | Total mass-energy of our galaxy, the Milky Way, including dark matter and dark energy[210][211] | |
1062 | 1–2×1062 J | Total mass-energy of the Virgo Supercluster including dark matter, the Supercluster which contains the Milky Way[212] | |
1069 | 4×1069 J | Estimated total mass-energy of the observable universe[213] |
SI multiples
Submultiples | Multiples | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Value | SI symbol | Name | Value | SI symbol | Name |
10−1 J | dJ | decijoule | 101 J | daJ | decajoule |
10−2 J | cJ | centijoule | 102 J | hJ | hectojoule |
10−3 J | mJ | millijoule | 103 J | kJ | kilojoule |
10−6 J | μJ | microjoule | 106 J | MJ | megajoule |
10−9 J | nJ | nanojoule | 109 J | GJ | gigajoule |
10−12 J | pJ | picojoule | 1012 J | TJ | terajoule |
10−15 J | fJ | femtojoule | 1015 J | PJ | petajoule |
10−18 J | aJ | attojoule | 1018 J | EJ | exajoule |
10−21 J | zJ | zeptojoule | 1021 J | ZJ | zettajoule |
10−24 J | yJ | yoctojoule | 1024 J | YJ | yottajoule |
10−27 J | rJ | rontojoule | 1027 J | RJ | ronnajoule |
10−30 J | qJ | quectojoule | 1030 J | QJ | quettajoule |
The joule is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every SI unit named for a person, its symbol starts with an upper case letter (J), but when written in full, it follows the rules for capitalisation of a common noun; i.e., joule becomes capitalised at the beginning of a sentence and in titles but is otherwise in lower case.
See also
- Conversion of units of energy
- Energies per unit mass
- List of energy topics
- Metric system
- TNT equivalent
- Scientific notation
- Energy conversion efficiency
Notes
- ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/462917/Plancks-constant
- ^ Calculated: KE_avg ≈ (3/2) * T * 1.38E-23 = (3/2) * 1E-10 * 1.38E-23 ≈ 2.07E-33 J
- ^ Calculated: E_photon = hv = 6.626e-34 J-s * 1e6 Hz = 6.6e-28 J. In eV: 6.6e-28 J / 1.6e-19 J/eV = 4.1e-9 eV.
- ^ "Frequency of a Microwave Oven". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: E_photon = hv = 6.626e-34 J-s * 2.45e8 Hz = 1.62e-24 J. In eV: 1.62e-24 J / 1.6e-19 J/eV = 1.0e-5 eV.
- ^ "Boomerang Nebula boasts the coolest spot in the Universe". JPL. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: KE_avg ≈ (3/2) * T * 1.38E-23 = (3/2) * 1 * 1.38E-23 ≈ 2.07E-23 J
- ^ a b c d "Wavelength, Frequency, and Energy". Imagine the Universe. NASA. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 1e3 J / 6.022e23 entities per mole = 1.7e-21 J per entity
- ^ Calculated: 1.381e-23 J/K * 298.15 K / 2 = 2.1e-21 J
- ^ a b c "Bond Lengths and Energies". Chem 125 notes. UCLA. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 2 to 4 kJ/mol = 2e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol = 3.3e-21 J. In eV: 3.3e-21 J / 1.6e-19 J/eV = 0.02 eV. 4e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol = 6.7e-21 J. In eV: 6.7e-21 J / 1.6e-19 J/eV = 0.04 eV.
- ^ Ansari, Anjum. "Basic Physical Scales Relevant to Cells and Molecules". Physics 450. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 4 to 13 kJ/mol. 4 kJ/mol = 4e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol = 6.7e-21 J. In eV: 6.7e-21 J / 1.6e-19 eV/J = 0.042 eV. 13 kJ/mol = 13e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol = 2.2e-20 J. In eV: 13e3 J / 6.022e23 molecules/mol / 1.6e-19 eV/J = 0.13 eV.
- ^ Thomas, S.; Abdalla, F.; Lahav, O. (2010). "Upper Bound of 0.28 eV on Neutrino Masses from the Largest Photometric Redshift Survey". Physical Review Letters. 105 (3): 031301. arXiv:0911.5291. Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105c1301T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.031301. PMID 20867754.
- ^ Calculated: 0.28 eV * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 4.5e-20 J
- ^ "CODATA Value: electron volt". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "BASIC LAB KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS". Retrieved 5 November 2011.
Visible wavelengths are roughly from 390 nm to 780 nm
- ^ Calculated: E = h * c / lambda. E_780_nm = 6.6e-34 kg-m^2/s * 3e8 m/s / (780e-9 m) = 2.5e-19 J. E_390 _nm = 6.6e-34 kg-m^2/s * 3e8 m/s / (390e-9 m) = 5.1e-19 J
- ^ Calculated: 50 kcal/mol * 4.184 J/calorie / 6.0e22e23 molecules/mol = 3.47e-19 J. (3.47e-19 J / 1.60e-19 eV/J = 2.2 eV.) and 200 kcal/mol * 4.184 J/calorie / 6.0e22e23 molecules/mol = 1.389e-18 J. (7.64e-19 J / 1.60e-19 eV/J = 8.68 eV.)
- ^ Thomas J Bowles (2000). P. Langacker (ed.). Neutrinos in physics and astrophysics: from 10–33 to 1028 cm: TASI 98 : Boulder, Colorado, USA, 1–26 June 1998. World Scientific. p. 354. ISBN 978-981-02-3887-2. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
an upper limit ov m_v_u < 170 keV
- ^ Calculated: 170e3 eV * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 2.7e-14 J
- ^ "electron mass energy equivalent". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Muller, Richard A. (2002). "The Sun, Hydrogen Bombs, and the physics of fusion". Retrieved 5 November 2011.
The neutron comes out with high energy of 14.1 MeV
- ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ a b "Energy From Uranium Fission". HyperPhysics. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
- ^ a b "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "proton mass energy equivalent". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "neutron mass energy equivalent". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "deuteron mass energy equivalent". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "alpha particle mass energy equivalent". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Myers, Stephen. "The LEP Collider". CERN. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
the LEP machine energy is about 50 GeV per beam
- ^ Calculated: 50e9 eV * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 8e-9 J
- ^ "W". PDG Live. Particle Data Group. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Amsler, C.; Doser, M.; Antonelli, M.; Asner, D.; Babu, K.; Baer, H.; Band, H.; Barnett, R.; Bergren, E.; Beringer, J.; Bernardi, G.; Bertl, W.; Bichsel, H.; Biebel, O.; Bloch, P.; Blucher, E.; Blusk, S.; Cahn, R. N.; Carena, M.; Caso, C.; Ceccucci, A.; Chakraborty, D.; Chen, M. -C.; Chivukula, R. S.; Cowan, G.; Dahl, O.; d'Ambrosio, G.; Damour, T.; De Gouvêa, A.; Degrand, T. (2008). "Review of Particle Physics⁎". Physics Letters B. 667: 1–6. Bibcode:2008PhLB..667....1P. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018.
- ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ ATLAS; CMS (26 March 2015). "Combined Measurement of the Higgs Boson Mass in pp Collisions at √s=7 and 8 TeV with the ATLAS and CMS Experiments". arXiv:1503.07589.
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(help) - ^ Adams, John. "400 GeV Proton Synchrotron". Excertp from the CERN Annual Report 1976. CERN. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
A circulating proton beam of 400 GeV energy was first achieved in the SPS on 17 June 1976
- ^ Calculated: 400e9 eV * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 6.4e-8 J
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Appendix B8—Factors for Units Listed Alphabetically". NIST Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
1.355818
- ^ "Conversion from eV to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "Chocolate bar yardstick". Retrieved 24 January 2014.
A TeV is actually a very tiny amount of energy. A popular analogy is to a flying mosquito.
- ^ "First successful beam at record energy of 6.5 TeV". Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ Calculated: 6.5e12 eV per beam * 1.6e-19 J/eV = 1.04e-6 J
- ^ "Coin specifications". United States Mint. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
11.340 g
- ^ Calculated: m*g*h = 11.34e-3 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 * 1 m = 1.1e-1 J
- ^ "Apples, raw, with skin (NDB No. 09003)". USDA Nutrient Database. USDA. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
- ^ Calculated: m*g*h = 1e-1 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 * 1 m = 1 J
- ^ "Specific Heat of Dry Air". Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
- ^ "Footnotes". NIST Guide to the SI. NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "Physical Motivations". ULTRA Home Page (EUSO project). Dipartimento di Fisica di Torino. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 5e19 eV * 1.6e-19 J/ev = 8 J
- ^ "The Fly's Eye (1981–1993)". HiRes. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ^ Bird, D. J. (March 1995). "Detection of a cosmic ray with measured energy well beyond the expected spectral cutoff due to cosmic microwave radiation". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1 (ISSN 0004-637X), vol. 441, no. 1, p. 144-150. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
- ^ "Notes on the Troubleshooting and Repair of Electronic Flash Units and Strobe Lights and Design Guidelines, Useful Circuits, and Schematics". Retrieved 8 December 2011.
The energy storage capacitor for pocket cameras is typically 100 to 400 uF at 330 V (charged to 300 V) with a typical flash energy of 10 W-s.
- ^ "Teardown: Digital Camera Canon PowerShot |". electroelvis.com. 2 September 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
- ^ "Ionizing Radiation". General Chemistry Topic Review: Nuclear Chemistry. Bodner Research Web. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Vertical Jump Test". Topend Sports. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
41–50 cm (males) 31–40 cm (females)
- ^ "Mass of an Adult". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
70 kg
- ^ Kinetic energy at start of jump = potential energy at high point of jump. Using a mass of 70 kg and a high point of 40 cm => energy = m*g*h = 70 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 * 40e-2 m = 274 J
- ^ "Latent Heat of Melting of some common Materials". Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
334 kJ/kg
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(help) - ^ "Javelin Throw – Introduction". IAAF. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
- ^ Young, Michael. "Developing Event Specific Strength for the Javelin Throw" (PDF). Retrieved 13 December 2011.
For elite athletes, the velocity of a javelin release has been measured in excess of 30m/s
- ^ Calculated: 1/2 * 0.8 kg * (30 m/s)^2 = 360 J
- ^ Greenspun, Philip. "Studio Photography". Retrieved 13 December 2011.
Most serious studio photographers start with about 2000 watts-seconds
- ^ "Discus Throw – Introduction". IAAF. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 1/2 * 2 kg * (24.4 m/s)^2 = 595.4 J
- ^ "Shot Put – Introduction". IAAF. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 1/2 * 7.26 kg * (14.7 m/s)^2 = 784 J
- ^ Kopp, G.; Lean, J. L. (2011). "A new, lower value of total solar irradiance: Evidence and climate significance" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 38: n/a. Bibcode:2011GeoRL..38.1706K. doi:10.1029/2010GL045777.
- ^ "Intermediate power ammunition for automatic assault rifles". Modern Firearms. World Guns. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
- ^ "Fluids - Latent Heat of Evaporation". Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
2257 kJ/kg
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(help) - ^ powerlabs.org – The PowerLabs Solid State Can Crusher!, 2002
- ^ "Hammer Throw – Introduction". IAAF. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
- ^ Otto, Ralf M. "HAMMER THROW WR PHOTOSEQUENCE – YURIY SEDYKH" (pdf). Retrieved 4 November 2011.
The total release velocity is 30.7 m/sec
- ^ Calculated: 1/2 * 7.26 kg * (30.7 m/s)^2 = 3420 J
- ^ a b 4.2e9 J/ton of TNT-equivalent * (1 ton/1e6 grams) = 4.2e3 J/gram of TNT-equivalent
- ^ ".458 Winchester Magnum" (pdf). Accurate Powder. Western Powders Inc. Retrieved 7 September 2010.
- ^ "Battery energy storage in various battery sizes". AllAboutBatteries.com. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
- ^ "Energy Density of Carbohydrates". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Energy Density of Protein". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Energy Density of Fats". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ a b "Energy Density of Gasoline". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: E = 1/2 m*v^2 = 1/2 * (1e-3 kg) * (1e4 m/s)^2 = 5e4 J.
- ^ a b "List of Car Weights". LoveToKnow. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
3000 to 12000 pounds
- ^ Calculated: Using car weights of 1 ton to 5 tons. E = 1/2 m*v^2 = 1/2 * (1e3 kg) * (55 mph * 1600 m/mi / 3600 s/hr) = 3.0e5 J. E = 1/2 * (5e3 kg) * (55 mph * 1600 m/mi / 3600 s/hr) = 15e5 J.
- ^ Muller, Richard A. "Kinetic Energy in a meteor". Old Physics 10 notes.
- ^ Calculated: KE = 1/2 * 2e3 kg * (32 m/s)^2 = 1.0e6 J
- ^ "Candies, MARS SNACKFOOD US, SNICKERS Bar (NDB No. 19155)". USDA Nutrient Database. USDA. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ^ a b "How to Balance the Food You Eat and Your Physical Activity and Prevent Obesity". Healthy Weight Basics. National Heart Lung and Blood Institutde. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 2000 food calories = 2.0e6 cal * 4.184 J/cal = 8.4e6 J
- ^ Calculated: 1/2 * m * v^2 = 1/2 * 48.78 kg * (655 m/s)^2 = 1.0e7 J.
- ^ Calculated: 2600 food calories = 2.6e6 cal * 4.184 J/cal = 1.1e7 J
- ^ "Table 3.3 Consumer Price Estimates for Energy by Source, 1970–2009". Annual Energy Review. US Energy Information Administration. 19 October 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
$28.90 per million BTU
- ^ Calculated J per dollar: 1 million BTU/$28.90 = 1e6 BTU / 28.90 dollars * 1.055e3 J/BTU = 3.65e7 J/dollar
- ^ Calculated cost per kWh: 1 kWh * 3.60e6 J/kWh / 3.65e7 J/dollar = 0.0986 dollar/kWh
- ^ "Energy in a Cubic Meter of Natural Gas". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
- ^ "The Olympic Diet of Michael Phelps". WebMD. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
- ^ Cline, James E. D. "Energy to Space". Retrieved 13 November 2011.
6.27E7 Joules / Kg
- ^ "Tour de France Winners, Podium, Times". Bike Race Info. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
- ^ "Watts/kg". Flamme Rouge. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 90 hr * 3600 seconds/hr * 5 W/kg * 65 kg = 1.1e8 J
- ^ Smith, Chris. "How do Thunderstorms Work?". The Naked Scientists. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
It discharges about 1–10 billion joules of energy
- ^ "Powering up ATLAS's mega magnet". Spotlight on... CERN. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
magnetic energy of 1.1 Gigajoules
- ^ "ITP Metal Casting: Melting Efficiency Improvement" (PDF). ITP Metal Casting. U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
377 kWh/mt
- ^ Calculated: 380 kW-h * 3.6e6 J/kW-h = 1.37e9 J
- ^ Bell Fuels. "Lead-Free Gasoline Material Safety Data Sheet". NOAA. Retrieved 6 July 2008.
- ^ thepartsbin.com – Volvo Fuel Tank: Compare at The Parts Bin, 6 May 2012
- ^
- ^ "Power of a Human Heart". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
The mechanical power of the human heart is ~1.3 watts
- ^ Calculated: 1.3 J/s * 80 years * 3.16e7 s/year = 3.3e9 J
- ^ "U.S. Household Electricity Uses: A/C, Heating, Appliances". U.S. HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY REPORT. EIA. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
For refrigerators in 2001, the average UEC was 1,239 kWh
- ^ Calculated: 1239 kWh * 3.6e6 J/kWh = 4.5e9 J
- ^ a b Energy Units, by Arthur Smith, 21 January 2005
- ^ "Top 10 Biggest Explosions". Listverse. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
a yield of 11 tons of TNT
- ^ Calculated: 11 tons of TNT-equivalent * 4.184e9 J/ton of TNT-equivalent = 4.6e10 J
- ^ "Emission Facts: Average Annual Emissions and Fuel Consumption for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks". EPA. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
581 gallons of gasoline
- ^ "200 Mile-Per-Gallon Cars?". Retrieved 12 December 2011.
a gallon of gas ... 125 million joules of energy
- ^ Calculated: 581 gallons * 125e6 J/gal = 7.26e10 J
- ^ Calculated: 1e6 Watts * 86400 seconds/day = 8.6e10 J
- ^ Calculated: 3.44e-10 J/U-235-fission * 1e-3 kg / (235 amu per U-235-fission * 1.66e-27 amu/kg) = 8.82e-10 J
- ^ "A330-300 Dimensions & key data". Airbus. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
97530 litres
- ^ a b c http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/aviation/air_bp/STAGING/local_assets/downloads_pdfs/a/air_bp_products_handbook_04004_1.pdf
- ^ Calculated: 97530 liters * 0.804 kg/L * 43.15 MJ/kg = 3.38e12 J
- ^ Calculated: 1e9 Watts * 3600 seconds/hour
- ^ Weston, Kenneth. "Chapter 10. Nuclear Power Plants" (pdf). Energy Conversion. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
The thermal efficiency of a CANDU plant is only about 29%
- ^ "CANDU and Heavy Water Moderated Reactors". Retrieved 12 December 2011.
fuel burnup in a CANDU is only 6500 to 7500 MWd per metric ton uranium
- ^ Calculated: 7500e6 Watt-days/tonne * (0.020 tonnes per bundle) * 86400 seconds/day = 1.3e13 J of burnup energy. Electricity = burnup * ~29% efficiency = 3.8e12 J
- ^ "747 Classics Technical Specs". Boeing. Archived from the original on 10 December 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
183,380 L
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suggested) (help) - ^ Calculated: 183380 liters * 0.804 kg/L * 43.15 MJ/kg = 6.36e12 J
- ^ "A380-800 Dimensions & key data". Airbus. Retrieved 12 December 2011.
320,000 L
- ^ Calculated: 320,000 l * 0.804 kg/L * 43.15 MJ/kg = 11.1e12 J
- ^ "International Space Station: The ISS to Date". NASA. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
- ^ "The wizards of orbits". European Space Agency. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
The International Space Station, for example, flies at 7.7 km/s in one of the lowest practicable orbits
- ^ Calculated: E = 1/2 m.v² = 1/2 * 417000 kg * (7700m/s)² = 1.2e13 J
- ^ "What was the yield of the Hiroshima bomb?". Warbird's Forum. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
21 kt
- ^ Calculated: 15 kt = 15e9 grams of TNT-equivalent * 4.2e3 J/gram TNT-equivalent = 6.3e13 J
- ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ a b "How much energy does a hurricane release?". FAQ : HURRICANES, TYPHOONS, AND TROPICAL CYCLONES. NOAA. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
- ^ "The Gathering Storms". COSMOS. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
- ^ a b c d e "Country Comparison :: Electricity – consumption". The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 288.6e6 kWh * 3.60e6 J/kWh = 1.04e15 J
- ^ Calculated: 4.2e9 J/ton of TNT-equivalent * 1e6 tons/megaton = 4.2e15 J/megaton of TNT-equivalent
- ^ Calculated: 3.02e9 kWh * 3.60e6 J/kWh = 1.09e16 J
- ^ Calculated: E = mc^2 = 1 kg * (2.998e8 m/s)^2 = 8.99e16 J
- ^ "USGS Energy and Broadband Solution". National Earthquake Information Center, US Geological Survey. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
- ^ a b c The Earth has a cross section of 1.274×1014 square meters and the solar constant is 1361 watts per square meter.
- ^ "The Soviet Weapons Program – The Tsar Bomba". The Nuclear Weapon Archive. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 50e6 tons TNT-equivalent * 4.2e9 J/ton TNT-equivalent = 2.1e17 J
- ^ Calculated: 115.6e9 kWh * 3.60e6 J/kWh = 4.16e17 J
- ^ Alexander, R. McNeill (1989). Dynamics of Dinosaurs and Other Extinct Giants. Columbia University Press. p. 144. ISBN 0-231-06667-8.
the explosion of the island volcano Krakatoa in 1883, had about 200 megatonnes energy.
- ^ Calculated: 200e6 tons of TNT equivalent * 4.2e9 J/ton of TNT equivalent = 8.4e17 J
- ^ Calculated: 402e9 kWh * 3.60e6 J/kWh = 1.45e17 J
- ^ Calculated: 3.741e12 kWh * 3.600e6 J/kWh = 1.347e19 J
- ^ "United States". The World Factbook. USA. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 3.953e12 kWh * 3.600e6 J/kWh = 1.423e19 J
- ^ a b "World". The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 17.8e12 kWh * 3.60e6 J/kWh = 6.41e19 J
- ^ Calculated: 18.95e12 kWh * 3.60e6 J/kWh = 6.82e19 J
- ^ a b c d e "Statistical Review of World Energy 2011" (PDF). BP. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
- ^ Calculated: 12002.4e6 tonnes of oil equivalent * 42e9 J/tonne of oil equivalent = 5.0e20 J
- ^ a b c Global Uranium Resource
- ^ U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Generation
- ^ U.S. EIA International Energy Outlook 2007.
- ^ Final number is computed. Energy Outlook 2007 shows 15.9% of world energy is nuclear. IAEA estimates conventional uranium stock, at today's prices is sufficient for 85 years. Convert billion kilowatt-hours to joules then: 6.25×1019×0.159×85 = 8.01×1020.
- ^ Calculated: "6608.9 trillion cubic feet" => 6608.9e3 billion cubic feet * 0.025 million tonnes of oil equivalent/billion cubic feet * 1e6 tonnes of oil equivalent/million tonnes of oil equivalent * 42e9 J/tonne of oil equivalent = 6.9e21 J
- ^ Calculated: "188.8 thousand million tonnes" => 188.8e9 tonnes of oil * 42e9 J/tonne of oil = 7.9e21 J
- ^ Calculated: 1.27e14 m^2 * 1370 W/m^2 * 86400 s/day = 1.5e22 J
- ^ Calculated: 860938 million tonnes of coal => 860938e6 tonnes of coal * (1/1.5 tonne of oil equivalent / tonne of coal) * 42e9 J/tonne of oil equivalent = 2.4e22 J
- ^ Calculated: natural gas + petroleum + coal = 6.9e21 J + 7.9e21 J + 2.4e22 J = 3.9e22 J
- ^ "USGS, Harvard Moment Tensor Solution". National Earthquake Information Center. 26 December 2004. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
- ^ Bralower, Timothy J.; Charles K. Paull; R. Mark Leckie (April 1998). "The Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary cocktail: Chicxulub impact triggers margin collapse and extensive sediment gravity flows" (PDF). Geology. 26 (4): 331–334. Bibcode:1998Geo....26..331B. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0331:tctbcc>2.3.co;2. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
The kinetic energy derived by the impact is estimated at ~5 × 10^30 ergs
- ^ Calculated: 1.27e14 m^2 * 1370 W/m^2 * 86400 s/day = 5.5e24 J
- ^ a b c "Ask Us: Sun: Amount of Energy the Earth Gets from the Sun". Cosmicopia. NASA. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "Moon Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Calculated: KE = 1/2 * m * v^2. v = 1.023e3 m/s. m = 7.349e22 kg. KE = 1/2 * (7.349e22 kg) * (1.023e3 m/s)^2 = 3.845e28 J.
- ^ "Moment of Inertia—Earth". Eric Weisstein's World of Physics. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Allain, Rhett. "Rotational energy of the Earth as an energy source". .dotphysics. Science Blogs. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
the Earth takes 23.9345 hours to rotate
- ^ Calculated: E_rotational = 1/2 * I * w^2 = 1/2 * (8.0e37 kg m^2) * (2*pi/(23.9345 hour period * 3600 seconds/hour))^2 = 2.1e29 J
- ^ Calculated: 3.8e26 J/s * 86400 s/day = 3.3e31 J
- ^ "Earth's Gravitational Binding Energy". Retrieved 19 March 2012.
Variable Density Method: the Earth's gravitational binding energy is −1.711×10^32 J
- ^ http://www.uwgb.edu/DutchS/pseudosc/flipaxis.htm
- ^ Calculated: 3.8e26 J/s * 86400 s/day * 365.25 days/year = 1.2e34 J
- ^ "Earth: Facts & Figures". Solar System Exploration. NASA. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
- ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^
Chandrasekhar, S. 1939, An Introduction to the Study of Stellar Structure (Chicago: U. of Chicago; reprinted in New York: Dover), section 9, eqs. 90–92, p. 51 (Dover edition)
Lang, K. R. 1980, Astrophysical Formulae (Berlin: Springer Verlag), p. 272 - ^ Frail, D. A.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Sari, R.; Djorgovski, S. G.; Bloom, J. S.; Galama, T. J.; Reichart, D. E.; Berger, E.; Harrison, F. A.; Price, P. A.; Yost, S. A.; Diercks, A.; Goodrich, R. W.; Chaffee, F. (2001). "Beaming in Gamma-Ray Bursts: Evidence for a Standard Energy Reservoir" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. 562: L55. arXiv:astro-ph/0102282. Bibcode:2001ApJ...562L..55F. doi:10.1086/338119. "the gamma-ray energy release, corrected for geometry, is narrowly clustered around 5 * 10^50 erg"
- ^ Calculated: 5e50 erg * 1e-7 J/erg = 5e43 J
- ^ Khokhlov, A.; Mueller, E.; Hoeflich, P.; Mueller; Hoeflich (1993). "Light curves of Type IA supernova models with different explosion mechanisms". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 270 (1–2): 223–248. Bibcode:1993A&A...270..223K.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Dong, S.; Shappee, B. J.; Prieto, J. L.; Jha, S. W.; Stanek, K. Z.; Holoien, T. W.- S.; Kochanek, C. S.; Thompson, T. A.; Morrell, N.; Thompson, I. B.; et al. (15 January 2016). "ASASSN-15lh: A highly super-luminous supernova". Science. 351 (6270): 257–260. arXiv:1507.03010. Bibcode:2016Sci...351..257D. doi:10.1126/science.aac9613.
- ^ url= http://arxiv.org/abs/1003.3885
- ^ url= http://arxiv.org/abs/1004.2900
- ^ url= http://arxiv.org/abs/0905.0690
- ^ url= http://tsvi.phys.huji.ac.il/presentations/Frail_AstroExtreme.pdf
- ^ url= http://fermi.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/mtgs/grb2010/tue/Dale_Frail.ppt
- ^ "A Hypernova: The Super-charged Supernova and its link to Gamma-Ray Bursts". Imagine the Universe!. NASA. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
With a power about 100 times that of the already astonishingly powerful "typical" supernova
- ^ "Sun Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
- ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Abbott, B.; et al. (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Physical Review Letters. 116 (6). arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102.
- ^ "Fermi's record breaking gamma-ray burst".
- ^ url= http://arxiv.org/abs/1103.0630
- ^ url= http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/625/1/L9/fulltext/19121.text.html
- ^ Jim Brau. "The Milky Way Galaxy". Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Karachentsev, I. D.; Kashibadze, O. G. (2006). "Masses of the local group and of the M81 group estimated from distortions in the local velocity field". Astrophysics. 49 (1): 3–18. Bibcode:2006Ap.....49....3K. doi:10.1007/s10511-006-0002-6.
- ^ "Conversion from kg to J". NIST. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Einasto, M.; et al. (December 2007). "The richest superclusters. I. Morphology". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 476 (2): 697–711. arXiv:0706.1122. Bibcode:2007A&A...476..697E. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078037.
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20140819120709/http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/980211b.html