Sima Yi: Difference between revisions
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{{chinese-name|[[Sima (surname)|Sima]] (司馬)}} |
{{chinese-name|[[Sima (surname)|Sima]] (司馬)}} |
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'''Zhuge Liang''' ({{zh|t={{linktext|諸|葛|亮}}|s={{linktext|诸|葛|亮}}|p={{linktext|Zhū|gě| Liàng}}|first=t}}, 181–234) was [[Chancellor of China|Chancellor]] of [[Shu Han]] during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period of China. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era.<ref name="jade">{{cite web |url=http://www.jadedragon.com/archives/history/liang1.html |title=Zhuge Liang - Kong Ming, The Original Hidden Dragon|work=JadeDragon.com|accessdate=2007-11-11}}</ref> |
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Often depicted wearing a robe and holding a fan made of crane feathers,<ref name="c-har">{{cite web|url=http://www.clearharmony.net/articles/200507/27920.html|title= Ancient Cultivation Stories: Zhuge Liang's Cultivation Practise |date=28 July 2005|work=ClearHarmony.net|accessdate=2007-11-11}}</ref> Zhuge was not only an important military strategist and statesman; he was also an accomplished scholar and inventor. His reputation as an intelligent and learned scholar grew even while he was living in relative seclusion, earning him the nickname "Wòlóng" (臥龍, or "Sleeping Dragon"). |
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'''Sima Yi''' (179 - September 7, 251) was a strategist, general, and politician of [[Cao Wei]] during the [[Three Kingdoms]] era of [[China]]. He is perhaps best known for defending Cao Wei from [[Zhuge Liang]]'s [[Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions|Northern Expeditions]]. His success and subsequent rise in prominence paved the way for his grandson [[Sima Yan]]'s foundation of the [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin Dynasty]], which would eventually bring an end to the Three Kingdoms era. After the founding of the Jin Dynasty, Sima Yi was posthumously honored as '''Emperor Xuan of Jin''' with the temple name of '''Gaozu'''. |
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[[Zhuge]] is an uncommon two-character [[Chinese compound surname|compound family name]]. His name – even his surname alone – has become synonymous with intelligence and tactics in [[Chinese culture]]. |
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==Early life== |
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Sima Yi was one of eight brothers, all of whom were famous due to their lineage. Each of them had a [[Chinese style name]] ending with the character Da (達). Because of this, the brothers were known collectively as the "Eight ''Da'' of Sima" (司馬八達). This was a term of respect, as other groups of eight talented administrators in [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors|previous eras]] had been referred to in this way.<ref>Sakaguchi 2005:158</ref> His family resided in [[Luoyang]] when [[Dong Zhuo]] occupied the city, destroyed it, and moved the capital to [[Chang'an]]. Sima Yi's elder brother, [[Sima Lang]] led the family to their ancestral home in the Wen district (温縣), and then, correctly predicting that it would become a battlefield, moved them again to Liyang (黎陽). In 194, as [[Cao Cao]] did battle with [[Lü Bu]], Sima Yi accompanied his family back to Wen district.<ref>ibid.</ref> |
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==Life== |
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==Service under Cao Cao== |
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===Early life=== |
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Accounts on how Sima Yi joined the service of Cao Cao differ, but he accepted his first position in Cao Cao's camp at the age of 30. According to the ''[[Book of Jin]]'', Sima Yi believed that the Han Dynasty would soon come to an end, and felt no motivation to join Cao Cao's camp, which had already taken control of the Han seat of government. He refused Cao Cao's requests to serve, saying that he was suffering from a disease. Cao Cao did not believe Sima Yi's excuse, and sent agents to check on Sima Yi at night. Sima Yi, knowing this in advance, stayed in bed all night and did not move. In 208, Cao Cao became [[Chancellor of China|Imperial Chancellor]] and ordered Sima Yi to serve him, saying "If he dallies, arrest him." Afraid of what would happen if he refused, Sima Yi finally accepted the position of Wenxueyuan (文学掾).<ref>''Book of Jin, vol. 1.''</ref> However, according to ''[[Weilüe]]'', [[Cao Hong]], Cao Cao's younger cousin, requested the presence of Sima Yi in order to start a friendship with him, but the latter, not having a very high opinion of Cao Hong, feigned illness by carrying a cane in order to avoid meeting him. Cao Hong went to Cao Cao in anger and told him what had happened, after which Cao Cao directly requested the presence of Sima Yi. Only then did Sima Yi officially enter Cao Cao's service.<ref>''Weilüe''</ref> |
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Zhuge Liang was born in [[Yangdu County]] (陽都) in [[Langya Commandery]] (琅琊), at present-day [[Yinan County]] (沂南), [[Shandong]] Province. He was the second of three brothers and became orphaned at an early age; his mother died when he was nine, and his father when he was twelve. His uncle raised him and his siblings.<ref name="chinaguide">{{cite web|url=http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/history/three_kingdoms/zhugeliang.htm|title=Zhuge Liang, Three Kingdoms Period|work=TravelChinaGuide.com|accessdate=2007-11-11}}</ref> When [[Cao Cao]] invaded Shandong in 195, his family was forced to flee south and his uncle soon died of illness. |
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Both his sisters were married into notable families with numerous relations in the area. For ten years he resided in [[Longzhong Commandery]] (隆中; in present-day [[Hubei]] province)<ref name="chinaguide"/> with his brothers [[Zhuge Jin]] and [[Zhuge Jun]] (諸葛均), leading a simple peasant life – farming by day and studying at night. [[Image:Zhugeliang Temple.jpg|thumb|250px|The Temple of the Marquis of Wu in [[Chengdu]], a temple worshipping Zhuge Liang.]] |
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In the Chancellor's service, he rose through the ranks of Dongcaoyuan (東曹掾; in charge of bringing officials into service), Zhubo (主簿; an administrative position), and Sima (司馬; position in charge of aids and advisors). In 215, when Cao Cao defeated [[Zhang Lu (Three Kingdoms)|Zhang Lu]] and forced him to surrender, Sima Yi advised that Cao Cao continue to advance south into Yizhou, since [[Liu Bei]] had still not stabilized his control of that area. However, Cao Cao did not listen to his advice. Sima Yi was among other advisors who urged for the implementation of the [[tuntian]] system and for Cao Cao to take the position of Prince of Wei.<ref>''Book of Jin, vol. 1.''</ref> |
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He developed friendships among the local intelligentsia. His reputation grew and he was nicknamed the "Crouching (or Sleeping) Dragon", an indication of his wisdom in various fields as his peers view him. He married the daughter of [[Huang Chengyan]], whose wife was the sister of [[Lady Cai]] (wife of the warlord [[Liu Biao]] and sister of [[Cai Mao]]). The name of Zhuge Liang's wife is rumored to be [[Huang Yueying]]. The Huang family was also related to several other established clans in the region. |
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==Service under Cao Pi== |
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Even before Cao Cao's death, Sima Yi was close to his successor, [[Cao Pi]]. When Cao Pi was designated Crown Prince of Wei in 216, Sima Yi was made his secretary. When Cao Cao wavered on choosing between Cao Pi and his younger brother [[Cao Zhi]], Sima Yi was among those who backed Cao Pi and helped him secure the succession. In this way, he became greatly trusted by Cao Pi.<ref>''Book of Jin, vol. 1.''</ref> After Cao Cao's death, and Cao Pi's ascension to Emperor of Wei, Sima Yi was involved in Cao Zhi's demotion and removal from politics.<ref>Sakaguchi 2005:160</ref> |
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===Rise to prominence=== |
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In 225, Cao Pi advanced against [[Sun Quan]]'s [[Eastern Wu|Wu]], and entrusted Sima Yi with command over the capital in his absence. He compared Sima Yi to [[Xiao He]], whose quiet contributions behind the battle lines earned him much praise.<ref>''Book of Jin, vol. 1.''</ref> Upon returning from the military expedition, Cao Pi once again praised his servant, saying "As I did battle in the East, you stayed in the capital and guarded our kingdom against [[Shu Han|Shu]] in the West. When I go to battle in the West against Shu, I'll entrust you with defense against Wu in the East." Sima Yi was soon given the post of Lushang Shushi (録尚書事), which at that time held the same real power and responsibilities as Imperial Chancellor. Sima Yi's position within Wei was now all but unassailable. |
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The warlord [[Liu Bei]] resided in the neighboring city [[Xiangyang]] under his distant relative and the governor of the [[Jing Province]] (荊州), Liu Biao. Zhuge Liang joined Liu Bei in 207 only after Liu Bei visited him personally thrice.<ref name="jade"/>{{Ref_label|1|I|none}} Zhuge Liang presented his [[Longzhong Plan]] to Liu Bei and travelled to [[Eastern Wu]] to form an alliance between Liu Bei and its ruler [[Sun Quan]]. |
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In the [[Battle of Red Cliffs]] of 208, the allied armies of Liu Bei and Sun Quan defeated Cao Cao, thus enabling Liu Bei to establish his own territories. The historical novel ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' described Zhuge Liang calling forth a southeastern wind to enhance [[Huang Gai]]'s fire-attack by spreading the flames across Cao Cao's ships<ref>[[Luo Guanzhong]], ''Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume II'', translated by Moss Roberts. page 852-856. Foreign Languages Press. Tenth Printing 2007. First Edition 1995. Beijing, China 1995. ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4</ref>. In reality, however, it was [[Zhou Yu]] who masterminded the fire attack. In folklore, the wind is attributed to either Zhuge Liang's magic or his ability to make accurate predictions of the weather. |
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==Service under Cao Rui== |
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In 226, as Cao Pi lay on his deathbed, he entrusted his successor [[Cao Rui]] to the care of Sima Yi, [[Cao Zhen]], and [[Chen Qun]]. When Cao Rui became Emperor of Wei, he trusted Sima Yi greatly and appointed him Piaoqi General (骠骑大将军)<ref>Watanabe 2006:283</ref> and military commander of [[Yuzhou]] and Jingzhou (督荊豫二州諸軍事) and was placed on the border between Wei and Wu to defend against Sun Quan's forces. |
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The alliance with Sun Quan was broken when the Wu general [[Lü Meng]] invaded Jing Province in 219 while its defender [[Guan Yu]] was at the [[Battle of Fancheng]]. Guan Yu was captured by the Wu forces and decapitated. Liu Bei was infuriated by the execution of his longtime comrade and he ignored all advice from his subjects to hold back. He led an army to attack Eastern Wu and was defeated in the ensuing [[Battle of Yiling]] by [[Lu Xun (Three Kingdoms)|Lu Xun]]. Liu died in the fortress of [[Baidicheng]] after a hasty and humiliating retreat to his own borders. After the death of Liu Bei, Zhuge Liang became the chancellor of [[Shu Han]] under [[Liu Shan]], Liu Bei's son. He reaffirmed the alliance with Eastern Wu.<ref name="chinaguide"/> Despite Liu Bei's request that Zhuge Liang assume control of Shu Han if Liu Shan proved to be an incompetent leader, Zhuge declined the offer and continued to serve Liu Shan with unwavering loyalty. |
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===Battle of Xincheng=== |
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{{Main|Battle of Xincheng}} |
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In 220, when [[Meng Da]] surrendered to Wei and Cao Pi entrusted him as Administrator of Xincheng. Sima Yi did not trust him, and argued his case to Cao Pi, but his advice was not taken.<ref>Sakaguchi 2005:160</ref> In 227, Meng Da began making overtures to Wu and Shu, promising to turn against Wei when an opportunity presented itself. He was very slow to move in response to Zhuge Liang's urgings, however, and [[Zhuge Liang]] attempted to spur him into action by leaking Meng Da's rebellious intentions to Shen Yi, the administrator of Weixing (魏興). When Meng Da learned that his plans had been discovered, he began raising troops in preparation for action.<ref>ibid.</ref> |
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===Southern Expedition=== |
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Fearing quick action by Meng Da, Sima Yi sent him a letter saying "Long ago, you surrendered to our kingdom, and we put you in charge of the defense of our borders against Shu. The people of Shu are foolish, and still hate you for not coming to [[Guan Yu]]'s assistance. [[Zhuge Liang|Kongming]] is the same, and he has been looking for a way to destroy you. As you probably suspect, the news of your rebellion is only his plot."<ref>ibid.</ref> Meng Da now believed that he was safe, and did not rush his preparations. He believed that Sima Yi, posted on the border of Wei and Wu, would require a month to go to Cao Rui and request permission to raise troops, then to reach Xincheng. However, Sima Yi was already on his way and reached Xincheng in 8 days, quickly defeating the unprepared Meng Da, who was killed in the battle. This action contributed indirectly to the success at the [[Battle of Jieting]] and earned Sima Yi much praise. |
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{{Main|Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign}} |
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During his reign as [[regent]], Zhuge Liang set Shu Han's objective as to restore the [[Han Dynasty]]. The Han Dynasty had been usurped by [[Cao Wei]] from Shu's point of view. Zhuge Liang felt that in order to attack Wei, a complete unification of Shu-Han is first needed.<ref name="ji">{{zh icon}} {{cite book |author= Zhuge Liang |coauthors=Zhang Zhu; Xizhong Duan; Xuchu Wen | title= 諸葛亮集 (Zhuge Liang ji) |oclc=21994628| location=[[Beijing]] |publisher=Zhonghua shu ju| year=1960}}</ref> He was worried that the [[Nanman]] tribes in the south might rise in rebellion and press into areas surrounding the capital city of [[Chengdu]] while he was leading the army to attack Cao Wei in the north. Zhuge Liang decided to pacify the southern tribes first. |
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===Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions=== |
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[[Ma Su]], brother of [[Ma Liang]], proposed that Zhuge Liang should attempt to win the hearts of the Nanman peoples and rally their support instead of using military force to subdue all of them. Zhuge Liang heeded Ma's suggestion and defeated the rebel leader, [[Meng Huo]], seven different times. He released Meng each time in order to achieve Meng's genuine surrender.<ref name="seven">{{cite book | author=Walter Ta Huang | title=Seven times freed | publisher=Vantage Press | location=[[New York]] | year=1967 | oclc=2237071}}</ref> |
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Meng Huo agreed to join Zhuge Liang in a genuine acquiescence. Zhuge Liang appointed him as governor of the region to keep the populace content and secure the southern Shu border. This would ensure that the future [[Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions|Northern Expeditions]] would proceed without internal disruptions.<ref name="ji"/> Zhuge Liang also obtained resources from the south, and after this, Zhuge Liang made his moves north. |
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===Northern Expeditions === |
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{{Main|Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions}} |
{{Main|Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions}} |
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When [[Cao Zhen]], who had been leading the defense against Zhuge Liang's Northern expeditions died in 231, Sima Yi took his position in command, and faced Zhuge Liang's armies for the first time in battle. Sima Yi kept his armies safe in fortifications, his strategy being to wait out the Shu armies who had a very difficult time keeping their armies supplied with provisions. He did not attempt to do battle with Zhuge Liang whatsoever, and was mocked by his own subordinates, who claimed he was the laughing stock of the world.<ref>Sakaguchi 2005:161</ref> Unable to resist doing battle any longer, he allowed his generals to attack Shu's positions, but they were badly defeated and suffered losses including 3000 soldiers, 5000 suits of iron armor, and 3000 crossbows.<ref>''Book of Shu'', Legend of Zhuge Liang.</ref> When Zhuge Liang finally did retreat, Sima Yi ordered [[Zhang He]] to pursue, who was ambushed and killed. |
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From 228 until his death in 234, Zhuge Liang launched five Northern Expeditions against Cao Wei, but all except one failed. The failure was usually caused by the shortage or exhaustion of food supplies rather than defeat on the battlefield. His only permanent gain was the addition of the [[Wudu Prefecture|Wudu]] (武都) and [[Yinping Prefecture|Yinping]] (陰平) prefectures as well as relocating Wei citizens to Shu on occasion.<ref name="zhizhong">{{zh icon}} {{cite book | author=Zhizhong Luo | title=諸葛亮 (Zhuge Liang) | publisher=Hao du chu ban you xian gong si|year=2003| location=[[Taizhong]] | isbn=9574555763 |oclc=55511668}}</ref> |
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The second battle between Sima Yi and Zhuge Liang was in 234. Cao Rui again identified Shu's problem being keeping their army supplied, and ordered Sima Yi to keep his armies fortified and wait the enemy out. The two armies faced each other at [[Battle of Wuzhang Plains|Wuzhang Plains]]. Although being challenged many times by Zhuge Liang, Sima Yi did not send his armies to attack. To provoke Sima Yi, Zhuge Liang sent women's clothes to him, suggesting that he was a woman for not daring to attack. The Wei officers were enraged by this, but Sima Yi would not be provoked. To appease his officers, Sima Yi asked the Wei Emperor Cao Rui for permission to engage the Shu forces. Cao Rui, understanding the situation, sent his advisor Xin Pi to Sima Yi telling the Wei forces to be patient.<ref>Watanabe 2006:270</ref> In an attempt to engage the Wei forces, Zhuge Liang sent Sima Yi an emissary urging him to battle. Sima Yi, however, would not discuss military matters with the emissary, instead inquired about Zhuge Liang's tasks. The emissary replied that Zhuge Liang personally manages matters both big and small in the military, from military tactics to meals for the night, but he consumes very little. Sima Yi then told an aide that Zhuge Liang would not last long.<ref>Watanabe 2006:272</ref> |
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During the first Northern Expedition, Zhuge Liang persuaded [[Jiang Wei]] of Cao Wei to defect to Shu Han.<ref name="zhizhong"/> Jiang Wei would become one of the prominent Shu generals and inherit Zhuge Liang's ideals. On the fifth expedition, Zhuge died of illness in the camp in the [[Battle of Wuzhang Plains]] at the age of 54. On Zhuge's recommendation, Liu Shan commissioned [[Jiang Wan]] to succeed him as regent.<ref name="3kingdoms">{{cite web|url=http://www.3kingdoms.net/shuadv.htm|title=Advisors of Shu Kingdom|work=3Kingdoms.net|accessdate=2007-11-11}}</ref> |
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Following Zhuge Liang's death, the Shu forces quietly withdrew from their camps while keeping Zhuge Liang's death a secret. Sima Yi, convinced by the locals that Zhuge Liang had died, gave chase to the retreating Shu forces. Jiang Wei then had Yang Yi turn around and pretend to strike. Seeing this, Sima Yi feared that Zhuge Liang only pretended he was dead to lure him out, and immediately retreated. Word that Sima Yi fled from the already dead Zhuge Liang spread, spawning a popular saying, "A dead Zhuge scares away a living Zhongda" (死諸葛嚇走活仲達), referring to Sima Yi's courtesy name. When Sima Yi heard of such ridicule, he laughingly responded, "I can do battle with the living, but not the dead."<ref>Watanabe 2006:276, Sakaguchi 2005:161</ref> |
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In ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', Zhuge Liang attempted to extend his lifespan by twelve years through a ritual. He failed when the ritual was disturbed by [[Wei Yan]], who rushed in to warn about the advance of the Wei army.<ref>[[Luo Guanzhong]], ''Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume IV'', translated by Moss Roberts. page 1886-1888. Foreign Languages Press. Tenth Printing 2007. First Edition 1995. Beijing, China 1995. ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4</ref>. The novel also related a story of Zhuge Liang passing the ''[[24 Volumes on Military Strategy]]'' (兵法二十四篇) to Jiang Wei prior to his death<ref>[[Luo Guanzhong]], ''Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume IV'', translated by Moss Roberts. page 1889. Foreign Languages Press. Tenth Printing 2007. First Edition 1995. Beijing, China 1995. ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4. In note 1 of chapter 104 - see page 2189 - Roberts mentions the ''Zhuge Liang ji'' (AD 274, which [[Chen Shou]] compiled)</ref>. |
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===Expedition against Gongsun Yuan=== |
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After [[Guanqiu Jian]] had failed to defeat the forces of [[Gongsun Yuan]] in [[Liaodong]], and Gongsun Yuan had declared himself Prince of Yan, Cao Rui put Sima Yi in charge of the next expedition against him. Sima Yi defeated Gongsun Yuan twice on the field of battle, and forced him to retreat to Xiangping (襄平), where he prepared for siege. Long rains brought a temporary break from the fighting, but as soon as they lifted, Sima Yi launched an all out attack. Gongsun Yuan and his sons were killed while attempting to flee.<ref>Watanabe 2006:278</ref> |
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==''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''== |
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==Service under Cao Fang and coup d'état== |
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The wisdom and achievements of Zhuge Liang were popularised by ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' attributed to [[Luo Guanzhong]] more than a millennium after the Three Kingdoms era ended. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms itself draws from historical sources, including Chen Shou's Records of Three Kingdoms. Other major influences include Liu Yiqing's Shishuo xinyu or A New Account of Tales of the World, published 430, and the Sanguozhi pinghua, a chronological collection of eighty fictional sketches starting with the peach garden oath and ending with Zhuge Liang's death. |
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{{Main|Incident at Gaoping Tombs}} |
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As Cao Rui lay on his deathbed, he had doubts about Sima Yi, and initially planned to exclude him from the regency of his successor [[Cao Fang]].<ref>Sakaguchi 2005:204</ref> He wanted to entrust Cao Fang to his uncle Cao Yu (曹宇), to serve as the lead regent, along with Xiahou Xian (夏侯獻), Cao Shuang, Cao Zhao (曹肇), and Qin Lang (秦朗). However, his trusted officials Liu Fang (劉放) and Sun Zi (孫資) were unfriendly with Xiahou and Cao Zhao and were apprehensive about their becoming regents, and managed to persuade him to make Cao Shuang (with whom they were friendly) and Sima Yi (who was then with his troops at Ji (汲縣, in modern Xinxiang, Henan, and to who Liu Fang and Sun Zi were close to) regents instead. Cao Yu, Cao Zhao, and Qin were excluded from the regency. |
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Several accounts (in relation to Zhuge Liang) contained in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms which have been considered fictitious are: |
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Initially, Cao Shuang and Sima Yi shared power, but Cao Shuang quickly used a number of political maneuvers to honor Sima with honorific titles including [[Government of the Han Dynasty|Grand Tutor]] while stripping his actual power. Cao Shuang then made all important decisions and stopped consulting Sima. Quickly, Cao's associates, including Deng Yang (鄧颺), Li Sheng (李勝), He Yan (何晏), and Ding Mi (丁謐)<ref>Watanabe 2006:280, Sakaguchi 2005:162</ref>, who were known for their talents but lack of wisdom, all became powerful, and they excluded other officials who would not associate with them from positions of power.<ref>Sakaguchi 2005:50</ref> Sima was still given military authority (including command in repelling a major Eastern Wu attack in 241), but no real authority on governance.<ref>ibid.</ref> |
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===Using straw boats to borrow arrows===<!-- This section is linked from [[Using straw boats to borrow arrows]] --> |
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In 244, Cao Shuang, who wanted to garner for himself a military reputation as well, made a major attack against Shu Han's major border city of Hanzhong (in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi), without careful logistics planning. The battles themselves were inconclusive, but after Cao Wei forces ran out of food supplies, Cao Shuang was forced to withdraw at great loss of life.<ref>Sakamoto 2005:51</ref> Despite his failure on the battlefield, however, Cao Shuang held onto power firmly. In 247, Sima, upset at his actual powerlessness, claimed that he was ill and retired from government service. Cao Shuang sent Li Sheng to determine whether or not Sima Yi was truly ill, and Sima Yi deceived him by acting senile in his presence.<ref>Watanabe 2006:281</ref> |
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Before the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhuge Liang visited the Wu camp to assist Zhou Yu. Zhou Yu saw Zhuge Liang as a threat to Eastern Wu and was also jealous of Zhuge Liang's talent. He assigned Zhuge Liang the task of making 100,000 arrows in ten days or face execution for failure in duties under military law. Zhuge Liang promised that he will finish this seemingly impossible task in three days. He requested 20 large boats, each manned by a few soldiers and filled with straw human-like figures. Before dawn, Zhuge Liang ordered his soldiers to beat war drums and shout orders so as to imitate the noise of an attack. |
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Upon hearing the drums, the Wei soldiers rushed out to meet the "attack". |
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In 249, Sima made his move. While Cao Fang and Cao Shuang were outside the capital on an official visit to Cao Rui's tomb, Sima, with support from a number of anti-Cao Shuang officials, claiming to have an order from Empress Dowager Guo to do so, closed all city gates of Luoyang and submitted a report to Cao Fang, accusing Cao Shuang of dominating and corrupting the government and demanding that Cao Shuang and his brothers be deposed. Cao Shuang was stricken by panic and did not know how to react, and even though his senior advisor Huan Fan recommended that he take Cao Fang to the secondary capital Xuchang and then resist Sima with his troops, Cao chose to surrender his troops and powers, under promise by Sima that he would still be able to maintain his titles. However, Sima soon reneged on the promise and had Cao Shuang and his associates, as well as their clans, executed on charges of treason.<ref>Sakamoto 2005:162, Watanabe 2006:282</ref> |
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Zhuge Liang drank wine with [[Lu Su]] on one of the boats. The Wei soldiers were unable to see through the fog and fired volleys of arrows at the sound of the drums. The straw figures were soon penetrated by many arrows, which became stuck in the straw. Zhuge Liang returned to Wu in triumph. |
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After Sima Yi's takeover, he carefully but inexorably removed people who were actual or potential threats to his authority. Yet, at the same time, he strived to distance himself from the patterns followed by the man his actions seemed to mirror most - Cao Cao; when Cao Fang offered him the nine bestowments, he strenuously refused them, only accepting them after more than three offers. The 18-year-old Cao Fang left himself in a vulnerable position by going so far as to grant one of his followers such influence; Sima, however, had the support of the people by removing corruption and inefficiency that characterized Cao Shuang's regency and promoting a number of honest officials. He was offered the title of Imperial Chancellor, but refused.<ref>Watanabe 2006:283</ref> |
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After removing the arrows from the straw figures' bodies, Zhuge Liang discovered there were over 100,000 arrows. |
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{{Main|Three Rebellions in Shouchun}} |
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In 249, the powerful general Wang Ling, who was in charge of the key southeastern city of Shouchun (壽春, in modern Lu'an, Anhui) began to plan a revolt against Sima's hold on power, in association with Cao Biao (曹彪), the Prince of Chu and a son of Cao Cao (whom he planned to replace Cao Fang with as emperor). In 251, Wang was ready to carry out his plans when his associates Huang Hua (黃華) and Yang Hong (楊弘) leaked the plan to Sima. Sima quickly advanced east before Wang could be ready and promised to pardon him. Wang knew that he was not ready to resist, so he submitted, but Sima again reneged on his promise and forced Wang and Cao Biao to commit suicide. Wang's clan and the clans of his associates were all slaughtered. |
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The Romance of the Three Kingdoms records this event, whereas no such account can be found in the historical accounts. The historical accounts do record the same strategem being performed by Sun Quan in the Battle of Ruxu. |
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Having secured his family's control of [[Cao Wei]], Sima Yi died in 251, succeeded by his son [[Sima Shi]]. |
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===Stone Sentinel Maze=== |
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{{See also|Stone Sentinel Maze}} |
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In Chapter 84, as Lu Xun pursued the fleeing Liu Bei after the Battle of Yiling, he felt a strong enemy presence near [[Baidicheng]] and cautioned his army for possible ambush. He sent scouts ahead, who reported that the area was empty except for some scattered piles of stones. Bewildered, he asked one of the locals, who answered that ''[[Qi]]'' started to emerge from the area after Zhuge Liang had arranged the stones there. Lu Xun personally inspected the area and determined that the array was only a petty display of deception. He led a few cavaliers into the array. Just as he was about to come out, a strong gust of wind blew. Dust-storms shadowed the sky and the stones became swords, mountainous piles of dirt emerged while the waves of the [[Yangtze River]] sounded like swords and drums. Lu Xun exclaimed, "I have fallen into Zhuge's trap!" and attempted to exit to no avail. |
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Suddenly, Lu Xun saw an old man standing before him, who asked him if he needed assistance in getting out of the array. Lu Xun followed the man and exited the maze unharmed. The old man identified himself as Zhuge Liang's father-in-law [[Huang Chengyan]]. Huang explained that the array is constructed using the ideas of the ''[[Bagua (concept)|Bagua]]''. Huang Chengyan said that Zhuge Liang had predicted that a Wu general would chance upon this maze when he first constructed the structure. Zhuge asked Huang Chengyan not to lead the general out when that happens. Lu Xun immediately dismounted from his horse and thanked Huang Chengyan. When he returned to his camp, he exclaimed that he could never beat Zhuge Liang in intelligence. |
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===Empty Fort Strategy=== |
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{{See also|Empty Fort Strategy}} |
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During the first Northern Expedition, Zhuge Liang's efforts to capture [[Chang'an]] were undermined by the loss at the [[Battle of Jieting]]. With the loss of Jieting, Zhuge Liang's current location, Xicheng (西城), was in great danger. With the army deployed elsewhere and left with only a handful of civilian officers in the city, Zhuge Liang decided to use a ploy to ward off the approaching Wei army. |
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Zhuge Liang ordered all the city gates to be opened and had two soldiers sweeping the roads while he sat high up on the gates calmly playing his [[zither]] with two children beside him. When the Cao Wei commander [[Sima Yi]] approached the fort with the Wei military, he was uncertain by the scene, and, assuming there was an ambush waiting for his army, retreated his troops. |
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Zhuge Liang later told the bewildered civil officers that the strategy only worked because Sima Yi was suspicious by nature. Sima had personally witnessed the success of Zhuge Liang's highly effective ambushing and misdirection tactics many times before so he probably felt suspicious when he saw the open scene before him just now. Besides, Zhuge Liang had a reputation as a keen but extremely careful military tactician who rarely took risks. Zhuge Liang's meticulousness, coupled with Sima Yi's suspicions, led Sima Yi to the conclusion that the seemingly empty fort had a hidden ambush inside. It is unlikely the same strategy would have worked on someone else. Indeed, Sima Yi's son [[Sima Zhao]] saw through the ruse immediately and advised his father against retreat. |
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According to Professor Yi Zhongtian, this event could not have taken place due to these reasons; Firstly, Sima Yi was not present at the site where this event took place as he was stationed far away in Wancheng (宛城) according to historical records. Secondly, it was impossible to have gotten to such close proximity to Zhuge Liang to watch his facial expressions and hear him play the zither clearly and if so, the Wei army could have ordered an archer to shoot down Zhuge Liang. Thirdly, based on Sima Yi’s expertise in military strategy, Sima Yi would possibly have ordered his army to surround the city and not attack even if he believed that there was an ambush inside, to verify that his assumption was true. |
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==Legacy== |
==Legacy== |
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[[Image:Zgn-1.jpg|thumb|A [[Zhuge Nu]].]] |
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After the fall of the Western Jin Dynasty, the belief began to shift from the popular ideal that Wei was the rightful successor to the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] toward a sympathetic view of Shu Han. Before this change, Sima Yi was seen as a righteous figure in the ''[[Book of Jin]]'' and was practically deified. Afterwards, Sima Yi began to be vilified; a view which was epitomized in the classic novel ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''. In the novel, Sima Yi was portrayed as the dedicated servant of Cao Cao, obsessed with his ideals even to the point of honing his example of usurping power against a weak ruler and using it to bring down Cao Cao's own descendants. In terms of history, many of the accounts are either contradicted or simply do not exist and were most likely borrowed from either the elements of [[Luo Guanzhong]]'s imagination or from folk tales that had been passed down through the ages. |
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Zhuge Liang's name is synonymous with wisdom in the [[Chinese language]]. He was believed to be the inventor of the [[Mantou]], the [[landmine]] and a mysterious, efficient automatic transportation device (initially used for grain) described as a "wooden ox and floating horse" (木牛流馬), which is sometimes identified with the wheelbarrow. Although he is often credited with the invention of the repeating crossbow which is named after him, called ''Zhuge Nu'', i.e. '''''Zhuge Crossbow''''', this type of semi-automatic crossbow is actually an improved version of a model that first appeared during the [[Warring States Period]] (though there is debate whether the original warring states bow was semi-automatic, or rather shot multiple bolts at once). Nevertheless, Zhuge Liang's version could shoot further and faster. He is also credited for constructing the mysterious [[Stone Sentinel Maze]], an array of stone piles that is said to produce supernatural phenomenon, located near Baidicheng.<ref name="art">{{cite book | author=Zhuge Liang |coauthors=[[Liu Ji]]; [[Thomas Cleary]] |title=Mastering the art of war |publisher=[[Shambhala Publications]] | location=[[Boston]] |year=1989 |isbn=0877735131 |oclc=19814956}}</ref> An early type of hot air balloon used for military signalling called the [[Kongming lantern]] is also named after him.<ref name="google">{{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ssO_19TRQ9AC&pg=PA113&ots=vDEuq_hKqc&dq=Kongming+balloon&sig=c3NT-uzoBYhzq203Qofw6XR9MH0 | title=Ancient Chinese inventions | author =Yinke Deng |isbn=7508508378 | year=2005}}</ref> |
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Some books popularly attributed to Zhuge Liang can be found today. For example, the ''[[Thirty-Six Stratagems]]'', and ''Mastering the Art of War'' (not to be confused with [[Sun Tzu]]'s ''[[The Art of War]]'') are two of Zhuge's works that are generally available. Supposedly, his mastery of infantry and cavalry formation tactics based upon the Taoist [[I-Ching]] were unrivalled. His petition ''[[Chu Shi Biao]]'' was written prior to the Northern Campaigns and it provided a salutary reflection of Zhuge Liang's unwavering loyalty to Shu-Han. The petition moved readers to tears. |
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As Sima Yi's contributions toward Cao Wei are substantial, the debate of his legacy lies within what motivated his actions. A debate, that has continued to this day and will most likely never be resolved, as to whether Sima Yi was acting in a benevolent way, such as [[Huo Guang]] did during the Han Dynasty, or whether he was acting out of pure ambition, comparable to [[Wang Mang]]'s short-lived [[Xin Dynasty]]. However, he died only a few years after forcibly regaining his power from Cao Shuang, leaving no definitive answer to his intentions for future generations. |
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He is also the subject of many Chinese literary works. A poem by [[Du Fu]], one of the most prolific poets from the [[Tang Dynasty]], was written in memory of Zhuge Liang and his unwavering dedication to his cause, against overwhelming odds. Some historians believe that Du Fu had compared himself with Zhuge Liang in the poem. The full text is: |
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==Legends== |
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One legend about Sima Yi is that he could turn his head 180° around on his neck to look backwards without turning his body. This characteristic was called "the turning-back of the wolf" (狼顧) supposedly based on the fact that wolves are cautious and aware of everything going on around them as though they had eyes in the back of their heads. It is said that Cao Cao heard this rumor and wanted to test it for himself. According to the legend, he came up behind Sima Yi and called out his name, and indeed his head did turn completely around. According to the ''Book of Jin'', when Cao Cao saw this he grew cautious of Sima Yi, saying "This man is hiding great ambition". Cao Pi would later say of Sima Yi "This man probably has no intention of ending his life as a mere servant". |
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{|width="70%" class="toccolours" style="margin:10px" |
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==Modern references== |
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|'''蜀相''' （also '''武侯祠 '''） |
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[[Image:DWSimaYi.jpg|right|200 px|thumb|Sima Yi as he appears in [[Koei]]'s ''[[Dynasty Warriors 6]]''.]] |
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<poem> |
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Sima Yi appears in the ''[[Dynasty Warriors]]'' video game series by [[Koei]], with his first appearance being ''[[Dynasty Warriors 2]]''. Sima Yi is portrayed as cunning, ruthless and extremely arrogant, boasting endlessly with each victory. Throughout the series, his main rival has invariably been [[Zhuge Liang]], all the way to the latter's death at the Wu Zhang Plains. In the Dynasty Warriors series Sima Yi's goal is to become emperor, but only in Dynasty Warriors 6 is he able to achieve it. |
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丞相祠堂何處尋？ |
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錦官城外柏森森。 |
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映階碧草自春色， |
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隔葉黃鸝空好音。 |
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三顧頻煩天下計， |
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兩朝開濟老臣心。 |
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出師未捷身先死， |
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長使英雄淚滿襟 |
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</poem> |
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|'''Premier of Shu''' (also '''Temple of the Marquis of Wu''') |
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<poem> |
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Where to seek the temple of the noble Premier? |
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In the deep pine forests outside the [[Chengdu|City of Silk]]: |
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Where grass-covered steps mirror the colours of spring, |
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And among the leaves orioles empty songs sing. |
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Three visits brought him the weight of the world; |
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Two emperors he served with one heart. |
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Passing ere his [[Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions|quest]] was complete, |
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Tears damp the robes of heroes ever since. |
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</poem> |
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|} |
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[[Bai Chongxi]], a [[military]] leader of the [[Republic of China]] and [[warlord]] from [[Guangxi]] province, earned the laudatory nickname "Little Zhuge" due to his tactical decisions in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] during World War II. |
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In the collectible card game [[Magic the Gathering]] there is a card named Sima Yi, Wei Field Marshal, in the [[Portal: Three Kingdoms]] set. |
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[[Takenaka Shigeharu]], a [[Sengoku Period]] [[Samurai]] who served under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], was often likened to Zhuge Liang for his reputation as an exceptional strategist. There is also a fictional account of Shigeharu entering Hideyoshi's service after the latter visited him thrice in a manner reminiscent of Liu Bei's three visits. |
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Manhua [[The Ravages of Time]] is another fictionalized series of the Three Kingdoms with Sima Yi as the central character. |
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==Portrayals in popular culture== |
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==Family== |
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=== |
===Films/TV series=== |
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Zhuge Liang was played by veteran Chinese actor [[Tang Guoqiang]] in the 1994 [[China Central Television|CCTV]] series ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms (TV series)|Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''. Zhuge was featured as a minor character in the 2008 film ''[[Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon]]'' and was portrayed by [[Pu Cunxin]]. [[Takeshi Kaneshiro]] played Zhuge Liang in [[John Woo]]'s ''[[Red Cliff (film)|Red Cliff]]''. |
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*Lady [[Zhang Chunhua]] (張春華) (d. 247), later posthumously honored as Empress Xuanmu (宣穆皇后) |
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[[Image:DWZhugeLiang.jpg|right|200 px|thumb|Zhuge Liang as he appears in [[Koei]]'s ''[[Dynasty Warriors 6]]''.]] |
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*Princess Fu (伏貴妃) |
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*Lady Zhang (張夫人) |
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*Lady Bai (柏夫人) |
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=== |
===Video games=== |
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Zhuge Liang's reputation for being an unparalleled genius is also emphasised in his portrayal in video games. Reflecting his status as the most highly regarded strategist in the novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', games such as ''[[Destiny of an Emperor]]'' and [[Koei]]'s ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms (game)|Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' series place Zhuge Liang's intelligence statistic as the highest of all characters. |
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*[[Sima Shi]] (司馬師) (born by Lady Zhang Chunhua) |
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*[[Sima Zhao]] (司馬昭) (born by Lady Zhang Chunhua) |
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**[[Sima Yan]] (司馬炎) (Grandson, founder of the [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin Dynasty]]) |
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*[[Sima Gan]] (司馬幹) (born by Lady Zhang Chunhua) |
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*[[Sima Zhou]] (司馬伷) (born by Lady Fu) |
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*[[Sima Liang]] (司馬亮) (born by Lady Fu) |
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*[[Sima Jing]] (司馬京) (born by Lady Fu) |
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*[[Sima Jun]] (司馬駿) (born by Lady Fu) |
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*[[Sima Rong]] (司馬肜) (born by Lady Zhang; died very young) |
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*[[Sima Lun]] (司馬倫) (born by Lady Bai) |
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In Dynasty Warriors 5, he helps to unite the land, but he dies while looking outside. In DW6, he somehow survives his illness and continues to support Shu. In DW4 Xtreme Legends, he sets up a plan to get Jiang Wei to join Shu. In DW5 Xtreme Legends, he works with Wei Yan and Zhang Fei to recruit Ma Chao and defeat Zhang Lu. |
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===Other family=== |
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;Ancestors |
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*Sima Xi (司馬錫) (distant ancestor) |
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*Sima Áng (司馬卬) (Prince of Qin (秦末殷王), 12th generation ancestor) |
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*[[Sima Qian]] (司馬遷) (famous historian, ancestor) |
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*Sima Jun (司馬鈞) (great-great-grandfather) |
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*Sima Liang (司馬量) (great grandfather) |
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*Sima Jun (司馬儁) (grandfather) |
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*Sima Fang (司馬防) (father) |
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In Dynasty Tactics, he has no facial hair, has long hair, and looks a lot younger. |
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;Brothers |
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*[[Sima Lang]] (司馬朗) (older brother) |
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*[[Sima Fu]] (司馬孚) (younger brother) |
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*Sima Kui (司馬馗) (younger brother) |
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*Sima Xun (司馬恂) (younger brother) |
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*Sima Jin (司馬進) (younger brother) |
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*Sima Tong (司馬通) (younger brother) |
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*Sima Min (司馬敏) (younger brother) |
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Zhuge Liang is the protagonist in [[Koei]]'s tactical role-playing game ''[[Sangokushi Koumeiden]]'', where he can die at the [[Wuzhang Plains]], as he did historically, or go on to restore the Han Dynasty under [[Emperor Xian]]. He also appears in Koei's popular ''[[Dynasty Warriors]]'' series. For more information, see [[List of Dynasty Warriors characters]]. |
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==Notes== |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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Zhuge Liang is also a main character on the second delivery of Koei's Kessen game also depicting him as a master strategist as well as the main enemy to beat on the Wei campaign. In this game, he is young, but an extremely powerful controller of the elements and a really tall man. |
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==References== |
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*[[Fang Xuanling]], ''[[Book of Jin]]'' vol. 1. |
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Zhuge Liang is portrayed as a young girl in the Japanese [[eroge]] [[Koihime Musō]]. |
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*[[Yu Huan]], ''[[Weilüe]]''. |
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*[[Luo Guanzhong]], ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''. |
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In Warriors Orochi, Zhuge Liang pretends to be an ally of Orochi. While he was facing Zhao Yun's forces and Sun Ce's forces, Zhuge betrayed Da Ji and had her show him where Liu Bei was being held. In Warriors Orochi 2, he discovers Da Ji's hideout in Shi Ting, and he and his wife, Huang Yue Ying, help to capture both Da Ji and Himiko. He later suspects Taigong Wang of purposefully letting go of Da Ji and Himiko. In Dream Mode, he teams up with Zhou Yu, Takeda Shingen, Taishi Ci, and Gan Ning in repelling Shima Sakon's forces, Uesugi Kenshin, and Sima Yi. |
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*Sakaguchi, Wazumi (ed.) (2005) 坂口和澄・著 ''Seishi Sangokushi Gunyu Meimeiden'' 『正史三國志群雄銘銘傳』 Kojinsha:Tokyo. |
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*Watanabe, Seiichi (ed.) (2006) 渡辺精一・監修 ''Moichidomanabitai Sangokushi'' 『もう一度学びたい 三国志』 Seitosha:Tokyo. |
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In the collectible card game [[Magic the Gathering]] there is a card named Kongming, "Sleeping Dragon", in the [[Portal: Three Kingdoms]] set. |
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===Comics=== |
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The young 'Chu-Ko Liang' is a member of the League of Infinity in the superhero pastiche [[Supreme]] by [[Alan Moore]]. |
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===Manhwa=== |
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In the [[Manhwa]] ''[[Faeries' Landing]]'', the protagonist of the story is a high-school student named Ryang Jegal, whose life is turned upside-down by a fairy and her heavenly (and not-so-heavenly) peers. Ryang Jegal, or Jegal Ryang in the proper Asian sequence, is the [[Korean (language)|Korean]] translation of Zhuge Liang. |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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*[[Three Kingdoms]] |
*[[Records of Three Kingdoms]] |
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*[[ |
*[[List of personages of the Three Kingdoms]] |
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*''[[Records of Three Kingdoms]]'' |
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*''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' |
*''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' |
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*''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms (TV series)]]'' |
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{{People of Cao Wei}} |
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*''[[Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon]]'' |
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*''[[Red Cliff]]'' |
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==Notes== |
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{{refbegin}} |
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I.{{Note_label|1|I|none}} Other historical sources contradict this story by saying that it was Zhuge Liang who went to visit Liu Bei and offered his services.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} |
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{{refend}} |
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==References== |
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===Footnotes=== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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===Books=== |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* {{cite book|author=[[Chen Shou]]| year=c. 280|title=[[Sanguo Zhi]] (History of the Three Kingdoms)|location=Reprint, 1959. Beijing|publisher=Zhonghua shuju}}. |
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* {{cite book| last=Guanzhong | first=Luo |authorlink=Luo Guanzhong|title=[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]] |publisher= [[Pantheon Books]]|location=[[New York]] | year=1976 |origyear=c. 1330 |others =Trans. Moss Roberts | isbn=0394407229 | oclc=2331218}} |
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* {{cite book | last=Off | first=Greg | title=Dynasty Warriors 5: Prima Official Game Guide | publisher=[[Prima Games]] | location=[[Roseville, Ontario|Roseville]] | year=2005 | isbn=0761551417 |oclc=62162042 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zMrwAAAACAAJ&dq=dynasty+warriors+5&hl=es}} |
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{{refend}} |
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====Chinese==== |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* {{cite book| first=Zhu |last=Dawei |coauthors=Mancang, Liang | title=诸葛亮大传 (Zhuge Liang da zhuan) |publisher=Zhonghua shu ju| location= Beijing Shi | year=2007 |isbn=9787101056389 |oclc=173263137}} |
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{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Commons}} |
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*[http://athenianarts.com/books/chinese-strategy/the-zhuge-liang-art-of-war/ Zhuge Liang's Art Of War] |
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*[http://kongming.net/novel/sgz/zhugeliang.php Sanguo Zhi Biography] |
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*[http://kongming.net/novel/kma/zhugeliang.php Sanguo Yanyi Biography] |
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*[http://kongming.net/novel/chronology/zhugeliang.php Chronology of his life] |
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{{People of the end of Han Dynasty}} |
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{{People of Shu}} |
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Revision as of 07:19, 12 March 2010
Template:Three Kingdoms infobox Template:Chinese-name Zhuge Liang (traditional Chinese: 諸葛亮; simplified Chinese: 诸葛亮; pinyin: Zhūgě Liàng, 181–234) was Chancellor of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era.[1]
Often depicted wearing a robe and holding a fan made of crane feathers,[2] Zhuge was not only an important military strategist and statesman; he was also an accomplished scholar and inventor. His reputation as an intelligent and learned scholar grew even while he was living in relative seclusion, earning him the nickname "Wòlóng" (臥龍, or "Sleeping Dragon").
Zhuge is an uncommon two-character compound family name. His name – even his surname alone – has become synonymous with intelligence and tactics in Chinese culture.
Life
Early life
Zhuge Liang was born in Yangdu County (陽都) in Langya Commandery (琅琊), at present-day Yinan County (沂南), Shandong Province. He was the second of three brothers and became orphaned at an early age; his mother died when he was nine, and his father when he was twelve. His uncle raised him and his siblings.[3] When Cao Cao invaded Shandong in 195, his family was forced to flee south and his uncle soon died of illness.
Both his sisters were married into notable families with numerous relations in the area. For ten years he resided in Longzhong Commandery (隆中; in present-day Hubei province)[3] with his brothers Zhuge Jin and Zhuge Jun (諸葛均), leading a simple peasant life – farming by day and studying at night.
He developed friendships among the local intelligentsia. His reputation grew and he was nicknamed the "Crouching (or Sleeping) Dragon", an indication of his wisdom in various fields as his peers view him. He married the daughter of Huang Chengyan, whose wife was the sister of Lady Cai (wife of the warlord Liu Biao and sister of Cai Mao). The name of Zhuge Liang's wife is rumored to be Huang Yueying. The Huang family was also related to several other established clans in the region.
Rise to prominence
The warlord Liu Bei resided in the neighboring city Xiangyang under his distant relative and the governor of the Jing Province (荊州), Liu Biao. Zhuge Liang joined Liu Bei in 207 only after Liu Bei visited him personally thrice.[1][I] Zhuge Liang presented his Longzhong Plan to Liu Bei and travelled to Eastern Wu to form an alliance between Liu Bei and its ruler Sun Quan.
In the Battle of Red Cliffs of 208, the allied armies of Liu Bei and Sun Quan defeated Cao Cao, thus enabling Liu Bei to establish his own territories. The historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms described Zhuge Liang calling forth a southeastern wind to enhance Huang Gai's fire-attack by spreading the flames across Cao Cao's ships[4]. In reality, however, it was Zhou Yu who masterminded the fire attack. In folklore, the wind is attributed to either Zhuge Liang's magic or his ability to make accurate predictions of the weather.
The alliance with Sun Quan was broken when the Wu general Lü Meng invaded Jing Province in 219 while its defender Guan Yu was at the Battle of Fancheng. Guan Yu was captured by the Wu forces and decapitated. Liu Bei was infuriated by the execution of his longtime comrade and he ignored all advice from his subjects to hold back. He led an army to attack Eastern Wu and was defeated in the ensuing Battle of Yiling by Lu Xun. Liu died in the fortress of Baidicheng after a hasty and humiliating retreat to his own borders. After the death of Liu Bei, Zhuge Liang became the chancellor of Shu Han under Liu Shan, Liu Bei's son. He reaffirmed the alliance with Eastern Wu.[3] Despite Liu Bei's request that Zhuge Liang assume control of Shu Han if Liu Shan proved to be an incompetent leader, Zhuge declined the offer and continued to serve Liu Shan with unwavering loyalty.
Southern Expedition
During his reign as regent, Zhuge Liang set Shu Han's objective as to restore the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty had been usurped by Cao Wei from Shu's point of view. Zhuge Liang felt that in order to attack Wei, a complete unification of Shu-Han is first needed.[5] He was worried that the Nanman tribes in the south might rise in rebellion and press into areas surrounding the capital city of Chengdu while he was leading the army to attack Cao Wei in the north. Zhuge Liang decided to pacify the southern tribes first.
Ma Su, brother of Ma Liang, proposed that Zhuge Liang should attempt to win the hearts of the Nanman peoples and rally their support instead of using military force to subdue all of them. Zhuge Liang heeded Ma's suggestion and defeated the rebel leader, Meng Huo, seven different times. He released Meng each time in order to achieve Meng's genuine surrender.[6]
Meng Huo agreed to join Zhuge Liang in a genuine acquiescence. Zhuge Liang appointed him as governor of the region to keep the populace content and secure the southern Shu border. This would ensure that the future Northern Expeditions would proceed without internal disruptions.[5] Zhuge Liang also obtained resources from the south, and after this, Zhuge Liang made his moves north.
Northern Expeditions
From 228 until his death in 234, Zhuge Liang launched five Northern Expeditions against Cao Wei, but all except one failed. The failure was usually caused by the shortage or exhaustion of food supplies rather than defeat on the battlefield. His only permanent gain was the addition of the Wudu (武都) and Yinping (陰平) prefectures as well as relocating Wei citizens to Shu on occasion.[7]
During the first Northern Expedition, Zhuge Liang persuaded Jiang Wei of Cao Wei to defect to Shu Han.[7] Jiang Wei would become one of the prominent Shu generals and inherit Zhuge Liang's ideals. On the fifth expedition, Zhuge died of illness in the camp in the Battle of Wuzhang Plains at the age of 54. On Zhuge's recommendation, Liu Shan commissioned Jiang Wan to succeed him as regent.[8]
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Zhuge Liang attempted to extend his lifespan by twelve years through a ritual. He failed when the ritual was disturbed by Wei Yan, who rushed in to warn about the advance of the Wei army.[9]. The novel also related a story of Zhuge Liang passing the 24 Volumes on Military Strategy (兵法二十四篇) to Jiang Wei prior to his death[10].
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
The wisdom and achievements of Zhuge Liang were popularised by Romance of the Three Kingdoms attributed to Luo Guanzhong more than a millennium after the Three Kingdoms era ended. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms itself draws from historical sources, including Chen Shou's Records of Three Kingdoms. Other major influences include Liu Yiqing's Shishuo xinyu or A New Account of Tales of the World, published 430, and the Sanguozhi pinghua, a chronological collection of eighty fictional sketches starting with the peach garden oath and ending with Zhuge Liang's death.
Several accounts (in relation to Zhuge Liang) contained in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms which have been considered fictitious are:
Using straw boats to borrow arrows
Before the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhuge Liang visited the Wu camp to assist Zhou Yu. Zhou Yu saw Zhuge Liang as a threat to Eastern Wu and was also jealous of Zhuge Liang's talent. He assigned Zhuge Liang the task of making 100,000 arrows in ten days or face execution for failure in duties under military law. Zhuge Liang promised that he will finish this seemingly impossible task in three days. He requested 20 large boats, each manned by a few soldiers and filled with straw human-like figures. Before dawn, Zhuge Liang ordered his soldiers to beat war drums and shout orders so as to imitate the noise of an attack.
Upon hearing the drums, the Wei soldiers rushed out to meet the "attack".
Zhuge Liang drank wine with Lu Su on one of the boats. The Wei soldiers were unable to see through the fog and fired volleys of arrows at the sound of the drums. The straw figures were soon penetrated by many arrows, which became stuck in the straw. Zhuge Liang returned to Wu in triumph.
After removing the arrows from the straw figures' bodies, Zhuge Liang discovered there were over 100,000 arrows.
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms records this event, whereas no such account can be found in the historical accounts. The historical accounts do record the same strategem being performed by Sun Quan in the Battle of Ruxu.
Stone Sentinel Maze
In Chapter 84, as Lu Xun pursued the fleeing Liu Bei after the Battle of Yiling, he felt a strong enemy presence near Baidicheng and cautioned his army for possible ambush. He sent scouts ahead, who reported that the area was empty except for some scattered piles of stones. Bewildered, he asked one of the locals, who answered that Qi started to emerge from the area after Zhuge Liang had arranged the stones there. Lu Xun personally inspected the area and determined that the array was only a petty display of deception. He led a few cavaliers into the array. Just as he was about to come out, a strong gust of wind blew. Dust-storms shadowed the sky and the stones became swords, mountainous piles of dirt emerged while the waves of the Yangtze River sounded like swords and drums. Lu Xun exclaimed, "I have fallen into Zhuge's trap!" and attempted to exit to no avail.
Suddenly, Lu Xun saw an old man standing before him, who asked him if he needed assistance in getting out of the array. Lu Xun followed the man and exited the maze unharmed. The old man identified himself as Zhuge Liang's father-in-law Huang Chengyan. Huang explained that the array is constructed using the ideas of the Bagua. Huang Chengyan said that Zhuge Liang had predicted that a Wu general would chance upon this maze when he first constructed the structure. Zhuge asked Huang Chengyan not to lead the general out when that happens. Lu Xun immediately dismounted from his horse and thanked Huang Chengyan. When he returned to his camp, he exclaimed that he could never beat Zhuge Liang in intelligence.
Empty Fort Strategy
During the first Northern Expedition, Zhuge Liang's efforts to capture Chang'an were undermined by the loss at the Battle of Jieting. With the loss of Jieting, Zhuge Liang's current location, Xicheng (西城), was in great danger. With the army deployed elsewhere and left with only a handful of civilian officers in the city, Zhuge Liang decided to use a ploy to ward off the approaching Wei army.
Zhuge Liang ordered all the city gates to be opened and had two soldiers sweeping the roads while he sat high up on the gates calmly playing his zither with two children beside him. When the Cao Wei commander Sima Yi approached the fort with the Wei military, he was uncertain by the scene, and, assuming there was an ambush waiting for his army, retreated his troops.
Zhuge Liang later told the bewildered civil officers that the strategy only worked because Sima Yi was suspicious by nature. Sima had personally witnessed the success of Zhuge Liang's highly effective ambushing and misdirection tactics many times before so he probably felt suspicious when he saw the open scene before him just now. Besides, Zhuge Liang had a reputation as a keen but extremely careful military tactician who rarely took risks. Zhuge Liang's meticulousness, coupled with Sima Yi's suspicions, led Sima Yi to the conclusion that the seemingly empty fort had a hidden ambush inside. It is unlikely the same strategy would have worked on someone else. Indeed, Sima Yi's son Sima Zhao saw through the ruse immediately and advised his father against retreat.
According to Professor Yi Zhongtian, this event could not have taken place due to these reasons; Firstly, Sima Yi was not present at the site where this event took place as he was stationed far away in Wancheng (宛城) according to historical records. Secondly, it was impossible to have gotten to such close proximity to Zhuge Liang to watch his facial expressions and hear him play the zither clearly and if so, the Wei army could have ordered an archer to shoot down Zhuge Liang. Thirdly, based on Sima Yi’s expertise in military strategy, Sima Yi would possibly have ordered his army to surround the city and not attack even if he believed that there was an ambush inside, to verify that his assumption was true.
Legacy
Zhuge Liang's name is synonymous with wisdom in the Chinese language. He was believed to be the inventor of the Mantou, the landmine and a mysterious, efficient automatic transportation device (initially used for grain) described as a "wooden ox and floating horse" (木牛流馬), which is sometimes identified with the wheelbarrow. Although he is often credited with the invention of the repeating crossbow which is named after him, called Zhuge Nu, i.e. Zhuge Crossbow, this type of semi-automatic crossbow is actually an improved version of a model that first appeared during the Warring States Period (though there is debate whether the original warring states bow was semi-automatic, or rather shot multiple bolts at once). Nevertheless, Zhuge Liang's version could shoot further and faster. He is also credited for constructing the mysterious Stone Sentinel Maze, an array of stone piles that is said to produce supernatural phenomenon, located near Baidicheng.[11] An early type of hot air balloon used for military signalling called the Kongming lantern is also named after him.[12]
Some books popularly attributed to Zhuge Liang can be found today. For example, the Thirty-Six Stratagems, and Mastering the Art of War (not to be confused with Sun Tzu's The Art of War) are two of Zhuge's works that are generally available. Supposedly, his mastery of infantry and cavalry formation tactics based upon the Taoist I-Ching were unrivalled. His petition Chu Shi Biao was written prior to the Northern Campaigns and it provided a salutary reflection of Zhuge Liang's unwavering loyalty to Shu-Han. The petition moved readers to tears.
He is also the subject of many Chinese literary works. A poem by Du Fu, one of the most prolific poets from the Tang Dynasty, was written in memory of Zhuge Liang and his unwavering dedication to his cause, against overwhelming odds. Some historians believe that Du Fu had compared himself with Zhuge Liang in the poem. The full text is:
| 蜀相 （also 武侯祠 ）
丞相祠堂何處尋？ |
Premier of Shu (also Temple of the Marquis of Wu)
Where to seek the temple of the noble Premier? |
Bai Chongxi, a military leader of the Republic of China and warlord from Guangxi province, earned the laudatory nickname "Little Zhuge" due to his tactical decisions in the Second Sino-Japanese War during World War II.
Takenaka Shigeharu, a Sengoku Period Samurai who served under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was often likened to Zhuge Liang for his reputation as an exceptional strategist. There is also a fictional account of Shigeharu entering Hideyoshi's service after the latter visited him thrice in a manner reminiscent of Liu Bei's three visits.
Portrayals in popular culture
Films/TV series
Zhuge Liang was played by veteran Chinese actor Tang Guoqiang in the 1994 CCTV series Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Zhuge was featured as a minor character in the 2008 film Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon and was portrayed by Pu Cunxin. Takeshi Kaneshiro played Zhuge Liang in John Woo's Red Cliff.
Video games
Zhuge Liang's reputation for being an unparalleled genius is also emphasised in his portrayal in video games. Reflecting his status as the most highly regarded strategist in the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, games such as Destiny of an Emperor and Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms series place Zhuge Liang's intelligence statistic as the highest of all characters.
In Dynasty Warriors 5, he helps to unite the land, but he dies while looking outside. In DW6, he somehow survives his illness and continues to support Shu. In DW4 Xtreme Legends, he sets up a plan to get Jiang Wei to join Shu. In DW5 Xtreme Legends, he works with Wei Yan and Zhang Fei to recruit Ma Chao and defeat Zhang Lu.
In Dynasty Tactics, he has no facial hair, has long hair, and looks a lot younger.
Zhuge Liang is the protagonist in Koei's tactical role-playing game Sangokushi Koumeiden, where he can die at the Wuzhang Plains, as he did historically, or go on to restore the Han Dynasty under Emperor Xian. He also appears in Koei's popular Dynasty Warriors series. For more information, see List of Dynasty Warriors characters.
Zhuge Liang is also a main character on the second delivery of Koei's Kessen game also depicting him as a master strategist as well as the main enemy to beat on the Wei campaign. In this game, he is young, but an extremely powerful controller of the elements and a really tall man.
Zhuge Liang is portrayed as a young girl in the Japanese eroge Koihime Musō.
In Warriors Orochi, Zhuge Liang pretends to be an ally of Orochi. While he was facing Zhao Yun's forces and Sun Ce's forces, Zhuge betrayed Da Ji and had her show him where Liu Bei was being held. In Warriors Orochi 2, he discovers Da Ji's hideout in Shi Ting, and he and his wife, Huang Yue Ying, help to capture both Da Ji and Himiko. He later suspects Taigong Wang of purposefully letting go of Da Ji and Himiko. In Dream Mode, he teams up with Zhou Yu, Takeda Shingen, Taishi Ci, and Gan Ning in repelling Shima Sakon's forces, Uesugi Kenshin, and Sima Yi.
In the collectible card game Magic the Gathering there is a card named Kongming, "Sleeping Dragon", in the Portal: Three Kingdoms set.
Comics
The young 'Chu-Ko Liang' is a member of the League of Infinity in the superhero pastiche Supreme by Alan Moore.
Manhwa
In the Manhwa Faeries' Landing, the protagonist of the story is a high-school student named Ryang Jegal, whose life is turned upside-down by a fairy and her heavenly (and not-so-heavenly) peers. Ryang Jegal, or Jegal Ryang in the proper Asian sequence, is the Korean translation of Zhuge Liang.
See also
- Records of Three Kingdoms
- List of personages of the Three Kingdoms
- Romance of the Three Kingdoms
- Romance of the Three Kingdoms (TV series)
- Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon
- Red Cliff
Notes
I.^ Other historical sources contradict this story by saying that it was Zhuge Liang who went to visit Liu Bei and offered his services.[citation needed]
References
Footnotes
- ^ a b "Zhuge Liang - Kong Ming, The Original Hidden Dragon". JadeDragon.com. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
- ^ "Ancient Cultivation Stories: Zhuge Liang's Cultivation Practise". ClearHarmony.net. 28 July 2005. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
- ^ a b c "Zhuge Liang, Three Kingdoms Period". TravelChinaGuide.com. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
- ^ Luo Guanzhong, Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume II, translated by Moss Roberts. page 852-856. Foreign Languages Press. Tenth Printing 2007. First Edition 1995. Beijing, China 1995. ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4
- ^ a b Template:Zh icon Zhuge Liang (1960). 諸葛亮集 (Zhuge Liang ji). Beijing: Zhonghua shu ju. OCLC 21994628.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Walter Ta Huang (1967). Seven times freed. New York: Vantage Press. OCLC 2237071.
- ^ a b Template:Zh icon Zhizhong Luo (2003). 諸葛亮 (Zhuge Liang). Taizhong: Hao du chu ban you xian gong si. ISBN 9574555763. OCLC 55511668.
- ^ "Advisors of Shu Kingdom". 3Kingdoms.net. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
- ^ Luo Guanzhong, Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume IV, translated by Moss Roberts. page 1886-1888. Foreign Languages Press. Tenth Printing 2007. First Edition 1995. Beijing, China 1995. ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4
- ^ Luo Guanzhong, Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume IV, translated by Moss Roberts. page 1889. Foreign Languages Press. Tenth Printing 2007. First Edition 1995. Beijing, China 1995. ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4. In note 1 of chapter 104 - see page 2189 - Roberts mentions the Zhuge Liang ji (AD 274, which Chen Shou compiled)
- ^ Zhuge Liang (1989). Mastering the art of war. Boston: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 0877735131. OCLC 19814956.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Yinke Deng (2005). Ancient Chinese inventions. ISBN 7508508378.
Books
- Chen Shou (c. 280). Sanguo Zhi (History of the Three Kingdoms). Reprint, 1959. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link). - Guanzhong, Luo (1976) [c. 1330]. Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Trans. Moss Roberts. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0394407229. OCLC 2331218.
- Off, Greg (2005). Dynasty Warriors 5: Prima Official Game Guide. Roseville: Prima Games. ISBN 0761551417. OCLC 62162042.
Chinese
External links
