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Part of a series on
Violence against men
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Violence against men is a term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against men or boys.

Types of violence

Domestic violence

Main article: Domestic violence § Violence against men
Kalighat painting, "Woman Striking Man With Broom," Calcutta, India, 1875

Determining how many instances of domestic violence actually involve male victims is difficult. Male domestic violence victims may be reluctant to get help for a number of reasons.[1] Some studies have shown that women who assaulted their male partners were more likely to avoid arrest even when the male victim contacts police.[2] Another study examined the differences in how male and female batterers were treated by the criminal justice system. The study concluded that female intimate violence perpetrators are frequently viewed by law enforcement and the criminal justice system as victims rather than the actual offenders of violence against men.[3] Other studies have also demonstrated a high degree of acceptance of aggression against men by women.[4]

Studies have shown many police officers do not treat domestic violence against men as a serious crime, and often will view the male victim as a "pathetic figure". It is for this reason, and also the view among many law enforcement officers that men are inherently "stronger" than women, that male victims are often less likely to report domestic violence than female victims. When and if they do, men are often treated as the aggressor in the situation, and often even placed under arrest.[5]

A 32-nation study of university students "revealed an overwhelming body of evidence that bidirectional violence is the predominant pattern of perpetration; and this study, along with evidence from many other studies (Medeiros & Straus, 2007), indicates that the etiology of PV is mostly parallel for men and women."[6]

Some researchers have found a relationship between the availability of domestic violence services, improved laws and enforcement regarding domestic violence, increased access to divorce, and higher earnings for women with declines in intimate partner homicide by women.[7]

Findings that women are as violent as men have been termed "gender symmetry".[1][8][9][10][11][12]

Straus and Gelles found that in couples reporting spousal violence, 27% of the time the man struck the first blow; in 24% of cases, the woman initiated the violence. The rest of the time, the violence was mutual, with both partners brawling. The results were the same even when the most severe episodes of violence were analyzed. In order to counteract claims that the reporting data was skewed, female-only surveys were conducted, asking females to self-report, and the data was the same.[13] The simple tally of physical acts is typically found to be similar in those studies that examine both directions, but some studies show that male violence may be more serious. Male violence may do more damage than female violence;[14] women are more likely to be injured and/or hospitalized. Wives are more likely to be killed by their husbands than the reverse (59% to 41% per Department of Justice study), and women in general are more likely to be killed by their spouses than by all other types of assailants combined.[15] From a data set of 6,200 cases of spousal abuse in the Detroit area of USA in 1978-79 found that men used weapons 25% of the time while female assailants used weapons 86% of the time, 74% of men sustained injury and of these 84% required medical care.[16]

In the United Kingdom, an article in The Guardian reported that statistical bulletins from the Home Office and the British Crime Survey found that men made up approximately 40% of domestic violence victims each year between 2004-05 and 2008-09.[17]

Martin S. Fiebert of the Department of Psychology at California State University, Long Beach, has compiled an annotated bibliography of research relating to spousal abuse by women on men. This bibliography examines 275 scholarly investigations: 214 empirical studies and 61 reviews and/or analyses that appear to demonstrate that women are as physically aggressive, or more aggressive, than men in their relationships with their spouses or male partners. The aggregate sample size in the reviewed studies exceeds 365,000.[18] In a Los Angeles Times article about male victims of domestic violence, Fiebert suggests that "...consensus in the field is that women are as likely as men to strike their partner but that—as expected—women are more likely to be injured than men."[19] However, he noted, men are seriously injured in 38% of the cases in which "extreme aggression" is used. Fiebert additionally noted that his work was not meant to minimize the serious effects of men who abuse women.

In a 2002 review of the research however Michael Kimmel found that violence is instrumental in maintaining control and that more than 90% of "systematic, persistent, and injurious" violence is perpetrated by men. He points out that most of the empirical studies that Fiebert reviewed used the same empirical measure of family conflict, i.e., the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) as the sole measure of domestic violence and that many of the studies noted by Fiebert discussed samples composed entirely of single people younger than 30, not married couples.[20] Kimmel argues that among various other flaws, the CTS is particularly vulnerable to reporting bias because it depends on asking people to accurately remember and report what happened during the past year. Men tend to underestimate their use of violence, while women tend to overestimate their use of violence. Simultaneously men tend to overestimate their partner's use of violence while women tend to underestimate their partner's use of violence. Thus, men will likely overestimate their victimization, while women tend to underestimate theirs.[21]

Similarly, the National Institute of Justice states that some studies finding equal or greater frequency of abuse by women against men are based on data compiled through the Conflict Tactics Scale. This survey tool was developed in the 1970s and may not be appropriate for intimate partner violence research because it does not measure control, coercion, or the motives for conflict tactics; it also leaves out sexual assault and violence by ex-spouses or partners and does not determine who initiated the violence. Furthermore, the NIJ contends that national surveys supported by NIJ, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Bureau of Justice Statistics that examine more serious assaults do not support the conclusion of similar rates of male and female spousal assaults. These surveys are conducted within a safety or crime context and clearly find more partner abuse by men against women.[22] However more modern Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other research reports that female perpetrated domestic abuse, is more common than male [23][24]

In a Meta-analysis, John Archer, Ph. D., from the Department of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, UK, writes:

The present analyses indicate that men are among those who are likely to be on the receiving end of acts of physical aggression.[1] The extent to which this involves mutual combat or the male equivalent to "battered women" is at present unresolved. Both situations are causes for concern. Straus (1997) has warned of the dangers involved—especially for women—when physical aggression becomes a routine response to relationship conflict. "Battered men"—those subjected to systematic and prolonged violence—are likely to suffer physical and psychological consequences, together with specific problems associated with a lack of recognition of their plight (George and George, 1998). Seeking to address these problems need not detract from continuing to address the problem of "battered women."[25]

Gender roles and expectations can and do play a role in abusive situations, and exploring these roles and expectations can be helpful in addressing abusive situations. Likewise, it can be helpful to explore factors such as race, class, religion, sexuality and philosophy. However, studies investigating whether sexist attitudes are correlated with domestic violence have shown conflicting results.[26][27]

A 1997 report says significantly more men than women do not disclose the identity of their attacker.[28] A 2009 study showed that there was greater acceptance for abuse perpetrated by females than by males.[29] Several studies have confirmed that women’s physical violence towards intimate male partners is sometimes in self-defense.[30][31][32][33] In a recent study of the judicial attributions of sentences for battered women convicted of killing their male partners, researchers found that judges often minimized previous partner violence, describing discrete episodes of violence, rather than as ongoing patterns of serious domestic abuse.[34]

In Norway, researcher Anja Bredal's opinion is that non-Norwegian men are being assaulted by their wives who are of the same ethnicity—who are Norwegian citizens.[35]

Erin Pizzey who opened one of the first women’s refuges in 1971, has said that almost as many men as women are victims of domestic violence and found that over half (62%)[36] of the women she admitted were as violent as their partners. She also stated that men were in need of a different kind of help than is currently available to them.

State violence

Gendercide and mass killings of men in military age have been common in several conflicts in the world history from ancient to modern times.[37]

Pakistan targeted male intellectuals for extermination in the erstwhile province of East Pakistan (present day Bangladesh) during the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities.[38] Pol Pot executed many men in Cambodia, resulting in a large percentage of Cambodia's population afterwards being women.[39] More recent examples include the 1988 Anfal campaign against Kurdish men and boys[40][41] in Iraq and the Srebrenica massacre of 8,000+ Bosniak men and boys on July 12, 1995.[42][43]

During the Kosovo War there were multiple instances of mass killings targeting only men:

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1080/10911359.2012.655988, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1080/10911359.2012.655988 instead.
  2. ^ Felson and Pare, (2007) p. 436
  3. ^ Kingsnorth and MacIntosh, (2007) p. 461
  4. ^ Straus, Murray A. (2006). "Paper presented at conference on Trends in Intimate Violence Intervention" (PDF). New York University.
  5. ^ Hoyle, Carolyn; Young, Richard New Visions of Crime Victims (2002) pp. 94-96
  6. ^ Straus, Murray (2008). "Dominance and symmetry in partner violence by male and female university students in 32 nations" (PDF). Children and Youth Services Review. p. 252.
  7. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1177/1088767999003003001, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1177/1088767999003003001 instead.
  8. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 10989615, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=10989615 instead.
  9. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 10989617, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=10989617 instead.
  10. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 10989616, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=10989616 instead.
  11. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 10989618, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=10989618 instead.
  12. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00204.x, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00204.x instead.
  13. ^ Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J. and Smith Ch., ed. (1995). Physical Violence in American Families. Transaction Publishers. p. 105. ISBN 1-56000-828-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  14. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 7696192, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=7696192 instead.
  15. ^ Angela Browne and Kirk R. Williams (1989). "Exploring the Effect of Resource Availability and the Likelihood of Female-perpetrated Homicides". Law and Society Review. 23 (1): 75–94. doi:10.2307/3053881. JSTOR 3053881.
  16. ^ Women against men: An examination of domestic violence based on an analysis of official data and national victimization data, McLeod, M., Justice Quarterly, 1, 171-193
  17. ^ Campbell, Denis (5 September 2010). "More than 40% of domestic violence victims are male, report reveals". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 10 February 2013. Data from Home Office statistical bulletins and the British Crime Survey show that men made up about 40% of domestic violence victims each year between 2004-05 and 2008-09, the last year for which figures are available.
  18. ^ Fiebert, Martin S. References examining assaults by women on their spouses or male partners:an annotated bibliography
  19. ^ Parsons, Dana (10 April 2002). "Pitcher's Case Throws a Curve at Common Beliefs About Abuse". L.A. Times. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
  20. ^ "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence: A Substantive and Methodological Research Review NCJRS Abstract.
  21. ^ Kimmel, Michael S. (2002) Male Victims of Domestic Violence. Published as "Gender Symmetry" in Domestic Violence: A Substantive and Methodological Research Review in Violence Against Women.
  22. ^ Measuring Intimate Partner (Domestic) Violence National Institute of Justice. Retrieved 2011-11-18.
  23. ^ Straus, M. A. (1999). The controversy over domestic violence by women: A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. In X. B.Arriaga & S.Oskamp (Eds.), Violence in intimate relationships (pp. 17–44). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  24. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.079020, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2005.079020 instead.
  25. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/S1359-1789(01)00061-1, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/S1359-1789(01)00061-1 instead.
  26. ^ Adkins, Katie S. (2010). A Contextual Family Therapy Theory Explanation For Intimate Partner Violence. Doctoral Dissertation: Ohio State University.
  27. ^ Eades, Rebecca Ann (2003). Ambivalent sexism as a predictor of severity of domestic violence by male offenders. University of Memphis. Participants high in hostile sexism, paired with either low or high benevolent sexism, had significantly higher risk for offending against a family member in the upcoming year. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help)
  28. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 12295375, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=12295375 instead.
  29. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00492.x, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00492.x instead.
  30. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1080/02732173.1997.9982160, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1080/02732173.1997.9982160 instead.
  31. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 7696193, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=7696193 instead.
  32. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1177/107780120200800302, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1177/107780120200800302 instead.
  33. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 9754498, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=9754498 instead.
  34. ^ Wells, E. C. (2012). "But most of all, they fought together": judicial attributions for sentences in convicting battered women who kill. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 350-364. doi: 10.1177/0361684312448932
  35. ^ http://nrk.no/nyheter/distrikt/ostafjells/buskerud/1.8259684
  36. ^ http://www.dvmen.org/dv-130.htm#pgfId-174083
  37. ^ Gendercide in Kosovo (Template:WebCite)
  38. ^ Rounaq Jahan, "Genocide in Bangladesh", in Samuel Totten et al., eds., Century of Genocide, p298. R.J. Rummel writes: "By November [1971], the rebel guerrillas ... had wrested from the army control over 25 percent of East Pakistan, a success that led the Pakistan army to seek out those especially likely to join the resistance -- young boys. Sweeps were conducted of young men who were never seen again. Bodies of youths would be found in fields, floating down rivers, or near army camps. As can be imagined, this terrorized all young men and their families within reach of the army. Most between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five began to flee from one village to another and toward India. Many of those reluctant to leave their homes were forced to flee by mothers and sisters concerned for their safety." Rummel, Death By Government (New Brunswick, USA: Transaction Publishers, 1994), p329.
  39. ^ Jones, Adam (2000). "Gendercide and Genocide". Journal of Genocide Research. 2 (2): 185–211. doi:10.1080/713677599. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  40. ^ The Crimes of Saddam Hussein
  41. ^ Koreme Before The Anfal Campaign
  42. ^ Srebrenica Timeline
  43. ^ Serbians Still Divided Over Srebrenica Massacre

Bibliography

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