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==History==
==History==
The earliest evidence of the concept of vital [[pressure point]]s dates back to the ''[[Rigveda|Rig Veda]]'' composed during the [[2nd millenium BC]] where [[Indra]] is recorded to have defeated [[Vritra]] by attacking his vital pressure points (''marman'') with his [[vajra]].<ref>Mariana Fedorova (1990). ''Die Marmantheorie in der klassischen indischen Medizin''.</ref> References are also found in the ''[[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]]''<ref>Subhash Ranade (1993). ''Natural Healing Through Ayurveda'' (p. 161). Passage Press. Utah USA.</ref> and numerous other scattered references to the vital points in [[Vedas|Vedic]] and [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.<ref name=Zarrilli>Phillip B. Zarrilli. "The Vital Spots (''Marmmam/Varmam'') in Two South Indian Martial Traditions", ''Paradigms of Practice and Power in a South Indian Martial Art''.</ref> [[Sushruta]] (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his ''Sushruta Samhita''.<ref>G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). ''Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita''.</ref> Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a [[Punch (strike)|fist]] or [[Staff (stick)|stick]].<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). ''A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports''.</ref> Sushruta's work marked the beginning of [[Ayurveda]], a medical discipline taught alongside various Indian martial arts.
The earliest evidence of the concept of vital [[pressure point]]s dates back to the ''[[Rigveda|Rig Veda]]'' composed during the [[2nd millenium BC]] where [[Indra]] is recorded to have defeated [[Vritra]] by attacking his vital pressure points (''marman'') with his [[vajra]].<ref>Mariana Fedorova (1990). ''Die Marmantheorie in der klassischen indischen Medizin''.</ref> References are also found in the ''[[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]]''.<ref>Subhash Ranade (1993). ''Natural Healing Through Ayurveda'' (p. 161). Passage Press. Utah USA.</ref> With numerous other scattered references to vital points in [[Vedas|Vedic]] and [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.<ref name=Zarrilli>Phillip B. Zarrilli. "The Vital Spots (''Marmmam/Varmam'') in Two South Indian Martial Traditions", ''Paradigms of Practice and Power in a South Indian Martial Art''.</ref> [[Sushruta]] (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his ''Sushruta Samhita''.<ref>G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). ''Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita''.</ref> Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a [[Punch (strike)|fist]] or [[Staff (stick)|stick]].<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). ''A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports''.</ref> Sushruta's work marked the beginning of [[Ayurveda]], a medical discipline taught alongside various Indian martial arts.

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[[Image:Rajputs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Organised martial traditions were studied as part of the ''[[dharma]]'' by the warrior [[Kshatriya]] in [[Hinduism]] ]]


Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of [[Malla-yuddha]] (more commonly known as ''Mallayuddha''), a form of combat [[wrestling]] codified into four forms,<ref>[http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html Mallayuddha]</ref> which is described in the ancient [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] as the fighting style of warriors such as [[Bhima]]. The art is supposed to have gained maximum prominence in [[History of India|ancient India]] at the time when the oral tradition of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' epic was conceived. The ''Mahabharata'' was compiled in textual form around the 5th century BC, while the epic's setting has a historical precedent in [[Vedic civilization|Vedic India]], where the [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru kingdom]] was the center of political power in the late [[2nd millennium BC|2nd]] and early [[1st millennium BC|1st]] millennia BCE. It is believed that Malla-yuddha was regarded as a prominent martial art in that era. [[Press up#Hindu press up|Hindu press up]]s used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.<ref name=Svinth/>
Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of [[Malla-yuddha]] (more commonly known as ''Mallayuddha''), a form of combat [[wrestling]] codified into four forms,<ref>[http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html Mallayuddha]</ref> which is described in the ancient [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] as the fighting style of warriors such as [[Bhima]]. The art is supposed to have gained maximum prominence in [[History of India|ancient India]] at the time when the oral tradition of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' epic was conceived. The ''Mahabharata'' was compiled in textual form around the 5th century BC, while the epic's setting has a historical precedent in [[Vedic civilization|Vedic India]], where the [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru kingdom]] was the center of political power in the late [[2nd millennium BC|2nd]] and early [[1st millennium BC|1st]] millennia BCE. It is believed that Malla-yuddha was regarded as a prominent martial art in that era. [[Press up#Hindu press up|Hindu press up]]s used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.<ref name=Svinth/>


⚫
References to martial arts are found in early [[Buddhist texts]]. In the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' (Chapter 14), [[Gautama Buddha]] (563-483 BC) refers to a [[boxing]] art while speaking to [[Manjusri]].<ref name=Haines>Bruce A. Haines (1995). ''Karate's History and Traditions'' (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804819475.</ref> The ''Lotus Sutra'' also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws,<ref>[http://www.uta.edu/student_orgs/umaa/htmlDocs/history.html History of Taekwondo.] University Martial Arts Association.</ref> and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called ''Nara''.<ref>Tim Steinwachs. [http://home.maine.rr.com/poiuyt/history.html History of Karate.]</ref> Another early Buddhist [[sutra]] ''Hongyo-kyo'' describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince [[Nanda (Buddhism)|Nanda]] and his cousin [[Devadatta]].<ref name=Haines/> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and [[archery|archer]] before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/>
⚫
[[Image:Rajputs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Organised martial traditions were studied as part of the ''[[dharma]]'' by the warrior [[Kshatriya]] in [[Hinduism]]]]

⚫
Early forms of [[boxing]] are mentioned in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] sources. In the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' (Chapter 14), [[Gautama Buddha]] (563-483 BC) refers to pugilists while speaking to [[Manjusri]]. The ''Lotus Sutra'' also refers to a dancing martial art called ''nara''. Another early Buddhist [[sutra]] ''Hongyo-kyo'' describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince [[Nanda (Buddhism)|Nanda]] and his cousin [[Devadatta]].<ref name=Haines>Bruce A. Haines (1995). ''Karate's History and Traditions'' (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804819475.</ref> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and [[archery|archer]] before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/>


Stories describing the life of [[Krishna]] from around the 6th century BC report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matcheswhere he used [[knee strike]]s to the chest, [[punch]]es to the head, hair pulling, and [[Chokehold|strangleholds]].<ref name=Svinth/>
Stories describing the life of [[Krishna]] from around the 6th century BC report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matcheswhere he used [[knee strike]]s to the chest, [[punch]]es to the head, hair pulling, and [[Chokehold|strangleholds]].<ref name=Svinth/>
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Around 630, King [[Narasimhavarman]] of the [[Pallava dynasty]] commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of [[Marma Adi|Varma Adi]], a Dravidian martial art that allowed [[kick]]ing, kneeing, [[elbow strike|elbowing]] and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist.<ref name=Svinth/><ref name=Zarrilli/> A similar martial art is described in the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (c. 8th century),<ref name=Zarrilli/> which contained several chapters described fighting arts. It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies with arrows, spears, swords and fists in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat. The latter included wrestling, kicking, kneeing and punching methods.<ref name=Svinth/>
Around 630, King [[Narasimhavarman]] of the [[Pallava dynasty]] commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of [[Marma Adi|Varma Adi]], a Dravidian martial art that allowed [[kick]]ing, kneeing, [[elbow strike|elbowing]] and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist.<ref name=Svinth/><ref name=Zarrilli/> A similar martial art is described in the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (c. 8th century),<ref name=Zarrilli/> which contained several chapters described fighting arts. It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies with arrows, spears, swords and fists in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat. The latter included wrestling, kicking, kneeing and punching methods.<ref name=Svinth/>

Martial arts were not exclusive to the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste. The 8th century text ''Kuvalaymala'' by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at ''salad'' and ''ghatika'' educational institutions, where [[Brahmin]] students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from [[South India]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Bengal]]) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."<ref>Phillip B. Zarrilli. "Actualizing Power(s) and Crafting a Self in Kalarippatattu", ''Aspects of Kalarippatattu''.</ref>


==Influence of Indian martial arts==
==Influence of Indian martial arts==
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{{see also|Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection}}
{{see also|Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection}}


The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the [[Indosphere]], those regions outside India influenced by Indian culture. Examples of such arts include [[Bando]],<ref>Women in martial arts by Carol A. Wiley</ref> [[Silat]],<ref>The Malay Art Of Self-defense: Silat Seni Gayong by Sheikh Shamsuddin</ref><ref>Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia by Donn F. Draeger</ref> [[Escrima]],<ref>Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima by Mark V. Wiley</ref> and possibly [[Muay Thai]].<ref>B. J. Erwin de Castro, R. Rhodes (1993). [http://www.equip.org/free/DM066.pdf Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the Martial Arts Phenomenon], ''Christian Research Journal'' '''5'''.</ref><ref>Alex Doss (2006). [http://www.sangam.org/taraki/articles/2006/02-10_Thamizhar_Martial_Arts.php?uid=1510&print=sangam ''Thamizhar Martial Arts''.] [[San Diego State University]].</ref>
The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the [[Indosphere]], those regions outside India influenced by Indian culture. Examples of such arts include [[Bando]],<ref>Women in martial arts by Carol A. Wiley</ref> [[Silat]],<ref>The Malay Art Of Self-defense: Silat Seni Gayong by Sheikh Shamsuddin</ref><ref>Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia by Donn F. Draeger</ref> [[Escrima]],<ref>Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima by Mark V. Wiley</ref> and [[Muay Thai]].<ref>B. J. Erwin de Castro, R. Rhodes (1993). [http://www.equip.org/free/DM066.pdf Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the Martial Arts Phenomenon], ''Christian Research Journal'' '''5'''.</ref><ref>Alex Doss (2006). [http://www.sangam.org/taraki/articles/2006/02-10_Thamizhar_Martial_Arts.php?uid=1510&print=sangam ''Thamizhar Martial Arts''.] [[San Diego State University]].</ref><ref>[http://www.usmta.com/MYTHS%20&%20LEGENDS.htm The Ramakien.] United States Muay Thai Association.</ref>


[[Image:Ricksongraciechoke.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Rickson Gracie]] during a [[Yoga]] session]]
[[Image:Ricksongraciechoke.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Rickson Gracie]] during a [[Yoga]] session]]


The Indian wrestling form of [[Pehlwani]] has influenced both [[catch wrestling]] and it's derivative system of [[shoot wrestling]]. [[Karl Istaz]] travelled to India to train with Indian wrestlers and incorporated their training methods in shoot wrestling, wrestlers like [[Yoshiaki Fujiwara]] <ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/products/item1.cfm] </ref> have applied these methods to train shoot wrestlers around the world. <ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/91.cfm?sd=2] My Christmas with Karl Gotch by ''Jake Shannon''</ref> <ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/180.cfm?sd=2] Victory Goes over a bridge</ref>
The Indian wrestling form of [[Pehlwani]] has influenced both [[catch wrestling]] and it's derivative system of [[shoot wrestling]]. [[Karl Istaz]] travelled to India to train with Indian wrestlers and incorporated their training methods in shoot wrestling, wrestlers like [[Yoshiaki Fujiwara]]<ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/products/item1.cfm] </ref> have applied these methods to train shoot wrestlers around the world.<ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/91.cfm?sd=2] My Christmas with Karl Gotch by ''Jake Shannon''</ref><ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/180.cfm?sd=2] Victory Goes over a bridge</ref>


India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of [[Jogo do Pau]]. Tamil immigrants to [[Malaysia]] brought with them the staff fighting art [[Silambam]].<ref>[http://ejmas.com/jmanly/articles/2003/jmanlyart_wolfcosta_0203.htm] Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution</ref><ref>[http://home.dbio.uevora.pt/~oliveira/Jogo_Pau/J_Pau.htm] Jogo Do Pau</ref>
India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of [[Jogo do Pau]]. Tamil immigrants to [[Malaysia]] brought with them the staff fighting art [[Silambam]].<ref>[http://ejmas.com/jmanly/articles/2003/jmanlyart_wolfcosta_0203.htm] Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution</ref><ref>[http://home.dbio.uevora.pt/~oliveira/Jogo_Pau/J_Pau.htm] Jogo Do Pau</ref>
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K. Voroshilov travelled to India, under the employ of NKVD physical training center, ''"[[Dynamo (sports society)|Dinamo]]"'', to observe its native matial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries — including India — formed the basis of the Russian martial art [[Sambo (martial art)|Sambo]].<ref>[http://www.combatspecialist.com/sambo.html] Sambo:Soviet System of Sport and Combat</ref><ref>[http://www.members.tripod.com/stratfordsombo/articles/history-2.html] The History of Sombo</ref>
K. Voroshilov travelled to India, under the employ of NKVD physical training center, ''"[[Dynamo (sports society)|Dinamo]]"'', to observe its native matial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries — including India — formed the basis of the Russian martial art [[Sambo (martial art)|Sambo]].<ref>[http://www.combatspecialist.com/sambo.html] Sambo:Soviet System of Sport and Combat</ref><ref>[http://www.members.tripod.com/stratfordsombo/articles/history-2.html] The History of Sombo</ref>


In addition, modern martial arts such as [[Brazilian Jiu Jitsu]] credit India to be the origin of their fighting principles.<ref>[http://www.rickson.com/history.htm] History of Jiu-Jitsu</ref>
In addition, modern martial arts such as [[Brazilian Jiu Jitsu]] credit India to be the origin of their fighting principles.<ref>[http://www.rickson.com/history.htm] History of Jiu-Jitsu</ref><ref>John B. Will. [http://www.bjj.com.au/john_article_web_7.html Vajramushti: The Ancient Vale Tudo of India.]</ref>
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== Indian martial arts under colonialism ==
== Indian martial arts under colonialism ==
⚫
Indian martial arts declined as Western colonialism disrupted the livelihoods of India's martial castes. [[Rajput]]s who sought service with rulers as their ancestors had done found their sources of patronage limited by British restrictions; unable to find employment in their traditional line of work, some joined the [[Pindari]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Bayly | first = C.A. | title = Indian Society and the making of the British Empire | origyear = 1988 | edition = Sixth printing | year = 2002 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | id = ISBN 0521386500 | pages = 103}}</ref>
Indian martial arts declined as Western colonialism disrupted the livelihoods of India's martial castes.

⚫
[[Rajput]]s who sought service with rulers as their ancestors had done found their sources of patronage limited by British restrictions; unable to find employment in their traditional line of work, some joined the [[Pindari]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Bayly | first = C.A. | title = Indian Society and the making of the British Empire | origyear = 1988 | edition = Sixth printing | year = 2002 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | id = ISBN 0521386500 | pages = 103}}</ref>

Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Zarrilli, P. | year = 1992 | title = To heal and/or harm: The vital spots (marmmam/varmam) in two south Indian martial traditions--Part I: Focus on Kerala's kalarippayattu | journal = Journal of Asian Martial Arts | volume = 1 | issue = 1 }}</ref>

More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.<ref>{{cite book | last = Zarrilli | first = Phillip B. | title = When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art | year = 1998 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford}}</ref>


The [[British Raj]] banned kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.<ref>{{cite book | last = Luijendijk | first = D.H. | title = Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art | url = http://www.martialartssupermarket.com/index.cfm?action=showProd&subid=1083 | year = 2005 | publisher = Paladin Press | location = Boulder | id = ISBN 1581604807}}</ref>
Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Zarrilli, P. | year = 1992 | title = To heal and/or harm: The vital spots (marmmam/varmam) in two south Indian martial traditions--Part I: Focus on Kerala's kalarippayattu | journal = Journal of Asian Martial Arts | volume = 1 | issue = 1 }}</ref> More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.<ref>{{cite book | last = Zarrilli | first = Phillip B. | title = When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art | year = 1998 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford}}</ref> The [[British Raj]] eventually banned kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.<ref>{{cite book | last = Luijendijk | first = D.H. | title = Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art | url = http://www.martialartssupermarket.com/index.cfm?action=showProd&subid=1083 | year = 2005 | publisher = Paladin Press | location = Boulder | id = ISBN 1581604807}}</ref>


The resurgence of public interest in kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule.<ref>Zarrilli 1998</ref>
The resurgence of public interest in kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule.<ref>Zarrilli 1998</ref>
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*[[Naseeruddin Shah]] plays [[Captain Nemo]] in the film [[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (film)]], released in 2003. He's shown to practice the Sikh martial art of Gatka.
*[[Naseeruddin Shah]] plays [[Captain Nemo]] in the film [[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (film)]], released in 2003. He's shown to practice the Sikh martial art of Gatka.
*A practitioner of Pehlwani is shown tossing [[Aamir Khan]] in the Bollywood motion picture, [[Rang De Basanti]], the motion picture is India's official entry for the 2006 [[academy awards]].
*A practitioner of Pehlwani is shown tossing [[Aamir Khan]] in the Bollywood motion picture, [[Rang De Basanti]], the motion picture is India's official entry for the 2006 [[academy awards]].
*In the [[Bollywood]] film ''[[Indian (film)|Indian]]'', the main protagonist portrayed by [[Kamal Hassan]] is a silent old ex [[Indian National Army]] veteran trained in "''[[Marma Adi|Marma Shastra]]''".
*In the [[Kollywood|Tamil]] film ''[[Indian (film)|Indian]]'', the main protagonist portrayed by [[Kamal Hassan]] is a silent old ex [[Indian National Army]] veteran trained in "''[[Marma Adi|Marma Shastra]]''".
*Hadji Singh, a popular character from the animated series [[Jonny Quest]] is an expert in martial arts. He also uses methods like the [[Indian rope trick]] and [[yoga]] meditation in addition of his abilities. He is shown to display the tricks he learnt from Pasha the peddlar, his past mentor, which are further honed by one of his current mentors, Race Bannon.
*Hadji Singh, a popular character from the animated series [[Jonny Quest]] is an expert in martial arts. He also uses methods like the [[Indian rope trick]] and [[yoga]] meditation in addition of his abilities. He is shown to display the tricks he learnt from Pasha the peddlar, his past mentor, which are further honed by one of his current mentors, Race Bannon.
[[Image:Sadhu03 cvr(c).jpg|thumb|right|200px|James Jenson, from [[The Sadhu]] comic book, in front of the hindu goddess [[Kali]]]]
[[Image:Sadhu03 cvr(c).jpg|thumb|right|200px|James Jenson, from [[The Sadhu]] comic book, in front of the hindu goddess [[Kali]]]]

Revision as of 00:25, 26 November 2006

The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of martial arts, including Kalarippayattu, Pehlwani, Vajra Mushti, Gatka, and Dravidian martial arts.

File:Balarama9.jpg
Martial arts have been associated with avatars, such as Balarama, in ancient Hindu mythological texts

Introduction

File:Matemple.jpg
Statues in an ancient hindu temple, showing warriors in combat

Ancient India was one of the centres of various martial traditions and practices. Most of the centers were in the Southern region, including present-day Kerala and the ancient Kingdom of Tamilakam. Some of the older traditions include organised martial systems as practiced by the Kshatriya caste of Hinduism, these systems include armed and unarmed combat and aspects such as meditation, conditioning etc. Many ancient hindu temples have statues of deities and warriors in various postures related to combat.

Martial arts of the Indian subcontinent are diverse in nature and have origins of different times from various different ethnic groups. A number of ancient and sophisticated Dravidian martial arts were developed in South India, including Kuttu Varisai (empty hand combat), Varma Kalai (the art of vital points) in Tamil Nadu, Kalari Payattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (Hit And Block), in Kerala.

History

The earliest evidence of the concept of vital pressure points dates back to the Rig Veda composed during the 2nd millenium BC where Indra is recorded to have defeated Vritra by attacking his vital pressure points (marman) with his vajra.[1] References are also found in the Atharva Veda.[2] With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.[3] Sushruta (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his Sushruta Samhita.[4] Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.[5] Sushruta's work marked the beginning of Ayurveda, a medical discipline taught alongside various Indian martial arts.

Organised martial traditions were studied as part of the dharma by the warrior Kshatriya in Hinduism

Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of Malla-yuddha (more commonly known as Mallayuddha), a form of combat wrestling codified into four forms,[6] which is described in the ancient Indian epics as the fighting style of warriors such as Bhima. The art is supposed to have gained maximum prominence in ancient India at the time when the oral tradition of the Mahabharata epic was conceived. The Mahabharata was compiled in textual form around the 5th century BC, while the epic's setting has a historical precedent in Vedic India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power in the late 2nd and early 1st millennia BCE. It is believed that Malla-yuddha was regarded as a prominent martial art in that era. Hindu press ups used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.[5]

References to martial arts are found in early Buddhist texts. In the Lotus Sutra (Chapter 14), Gautama Buddha (563-483 BC) refers to a boxing art while speaking to Manjusri.[7] The Lotus Sutra also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws,[8] and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara.[9] Another early Buddhist sutra Hongyo-kyo describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta.[7] Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and archer before becoming the Buddha.[5]

Stories describing the life of Krishna from around the 6th century BC report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matcheswhere he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.[5]

Records from around 500 BC describe martial arts which include combat techniques in which a fighter seizes or reverses holds on an opponent's joints, strikes with his fists, or grapples and throws his adversary. These three activities developed in conjunction with, as well as independantly of, each other.[10]

Around the 3rd century BC, Patanjali wrote the Yoga Sutras, which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These Yoga elements, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.[5]

Ancient Dravidian martial arts, and the word "kalari", are mentioned in Sangam literature from the 2nd century BCE. The Akananuru and Purananuru describe the martial arts of ancient Tamilakkam, including forms of one-to-one combat, and the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam. The word "kalari" appears in the Puram (verses 225, 237, 245, 356) and Akam (verses 34, 231, 293) to describe to both a battlefield and combat arena. The word "kalari tatt" denoted a martial feat, while "kalari kozhai" meant a coward in war.[11]

The martial art of Vajra Mushti was described in the Buddharata Sutra, written down by the 5th century,[10] though the art can be traced back to the early Kshatriya caste.[7] Indian military accounts of the Gupta Empire (c. 240-480) identified over 130 different classes of weapons. The Kama Sutra written by Vātsyāyana at the time suggested that women should regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and bow and arrow." Around this time, Tantric philosophers develop important metaphysical concepts such as kundalini energy, chakras, and mantras.[5]

Around 630, King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of Varma Adi, a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist.[5][3] A similar martial art is described in the Agni Purana (c. 8th century),[3] which contained several chapters described fighting arts. It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies with arrows, spears, swords and fists in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat. The latter included wrestling, kicking, kneeing and punching methods.[5]

Martial arts were not exclusive to the Kshatriya warrior caste. The 8th century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at salad and ghatika educational institutions, where Brahmin students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from South India, Rajasthan and Bengal) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."[12]

Influence of Indian martial arts

Further information: Indian influence on Chinese martial arts
See also: Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection

The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the Indosphere, those regions outside India influenced by Indian culture. Examples of such arts include Bando,[13] Silat,[14][15] Escrima,[16] and Muay Thai.[17][18][19]

File:Ricksongraciechoke.jpg
Rickson Gracie during a Yoga session

The Indian wrestling form of Pehlwani has influenced both catch wrestling and it's derivative system of shoot wrestling. Karl Istaz travelled to India to train with Indian wrestlers and incorporated their training methods in shoot wrestling, wrestlers like Yoshiaki Fujiwara[20] have applied these methods to train shoot wrestlers around the world.[21][22]

India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of Jogo do Pau. Tamil immigrants to Malaysia brought with them the staff fighting art Silambam.[23][24]

K. Voroshilov travelled to India, under the employ of NKVD physical training center, "Dinamo", to observe its native matial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries — including India — formed the basis of the Russian martial art Sambo.[25][26]

In addition, modern martial arts such as Brazilian Jiu Jitsu credit India to be the origin of their fighting principles.[27][28]

Indian martial arts under colonialism

Indian martial arts declined as Western colonialism disrupted the livelihoods of India's martial castes. Rajputs who sought service with rulers as their ancestors had done found their sources of patronage limited by British restrictions; unable to find employment in their traditional line of work, some joined the Pindari.[29]

Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century.[30] More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.[31] The British Raj eventually banned kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.[32]

The resurgence of public interest in kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule.[33]

List of Indian martial arts

File:Staff clip.gif
Stick fencing in Silambam Nillaikalakki
  • In the television series, Xena: Warrior Princess, Xena is shown carrying the "chakram of darkness". Xena also gets a new chakram in the second episode of the 5th seson called Chakram
Xena, holding her Chakram
File:Sadhu03 cvr(c).jpg
James Jenson, from The Sadhu comic book, in front of the hindu goddess Kali

See Also

References

  1. ^ Mariana Fedorova (1990). Die Marmantheorie in der klassischen indischen Medizin.
  2. ^ Subhash Ranade (1993). Natural Healing Through Ayurveda (p. 161). Passage Press. Utah USA.
  3. ^ a b c Phillip B. Zarrilli. "The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions", Paradigms of Practice and Power in a South Indian Martial Art.
  4. ^ G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.
  6. ^ Mallayuddha
  7. ^ a b c Bruce A. Haines (1995). Karate's History and Traditions (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804819475.
  8. ^ History of Taekwondo. University Martial Arts Association.
  9. ^ Tim Steinwachs. History of Karate.
  10. ^ a b Cezar Borkowski (1998). Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts.
  11. ^ Suresh, P. R. (2005). Kalari Payatte - The martial art of Kerala.
  12. ^ Phillip B. Zarrilli. "Actualizing Power(s) and Crafting a Self in Kalarippatattu", Aspects of Kalarippatattu.
  13. ^ Women in martial arts by Carol A. Wiley
  14. ^ The Malay Art Of Self-defense: Silat Seni Gayong by Sheikh Shamsuddin
  15. ^ Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia by Donn F. Draeger
  16. ^ Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima by Mark V. Wiley
  17. ^ B. J. Erwin de Castro, R. Rhodes (1993). Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the Martial Arts Phenomenon, Christian Research Journal 5.
  18. ^ Alex Doss (2006). Thamizhar Martial Arts. San Diego State University.
  19. ^ The Ramakien. United States Muay Thai Association.
  20. ^ [1]
  21. ^ [2] My Christmas with Karl Gotch by Jake Shannon
  22. ^ [3] Victory Goes over a bridge
  23. ^ [4] Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution
  24. ^ [5] Jogo Do Pau
  25. ^ [6] Sambo:Soviet System of Sport and Combat
  26. ^ [7] The History of Sombo
  27. ^ [8] History of Jiu-Jitsu
  28. ^ John B. Will. Vajramushti: The Ancient Vale Tudo of India.
  29. ^ Bayly, C.A. (2002) [1988]. Indian Society and the making of the British Empire (Sixth printing ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 103. ISBN 0521386500.
  30. ^ Zarrilli, P. (1992). "To heal and/or harm: The vital spots (marmmam/varmam) in two south Indian martial traditions--Part I: Focus on Kerala's kalarippayattu". Journal of Asian Martial Arts. 1 (1).
  31. ^ Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1998). When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  32. ^ Luijendijk, D.H. (2005). Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art. Boulder: Paladin Press. ISBN 1581604807.
  33. ^ Zarrilli 1998
  34. ^ [9]
  35. ^ [10]
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