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==Signs and symptoms==
==Signs and symptoms==
Reported symptoms have included fever, fatigue, dry cough, shortness of breath, respiratory distress,<ref name="Hui14Jan2020">{{vcite journal|authors=Hui DS, I Azhar E, Madani TA, Ntoumi F, Kock R, Dar O, Ippolito G, Mchugh TD, Memish ZA, Drosten C, Zumla A, Petersen E|title=The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health – The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China|journal=Int J Infect Dis|year=2020 Jan 14|volume=91|issue=|pages=264–266|pmid=31953166|doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009}}{{open access}}</ref> [[pneumonia]], [[kidney failure]] and [[death]] in severe cases.<ref>[https://www.ontario.ca/page/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov#section-4 Government of Ontario]</ref><ref name="wmhc2020-01-11">{{cite web|url=http://wjw.wuhan.gov.cn/front/web/showDetail/2020011109036|title=Experts explain the latest bulletin of unknown cause of viral pneumonia|date=11 January 2020|website=Wuhan Municipal Health Commission|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111031745/http://wjw.wuhan.gov.cn/front/web/showDetail/2020011109036|archive-date=11 January 2020|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref> Among the majority of those hospitalized, [[vital signs]] were stable on admission, and they had [[leukopenia]] and [[lymphocytopenia|lymphopenia]].<ref name="Hui14Jan2020" /> However, a quarter among those infected have experienced severe symptoms. Most of these patients also presented underlying conditions such as hypertension, diabetes or cardiovascular disease.<ref>https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-statement-on-the-advice-of-the-ihr-emergency-committee-on-novel-coronavirus</ref>
Reported symptoms have included fever, fatigue, dry cough, shortness of breath, respiratory distress,<ref name="Hui14Jan2020">{{vcite journal|authors=Hui DS, I Azhar E, Madani TA, Ntoumi F, Kock R, Dar O, Ippolito G, Mchugh TD, Memish ZA, Drosten C, Zumla A, Petersen E|title=The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health – The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China|journal=Int J Infect Dis|year=2020 Jan 14|volume=91|issue=|pages=264–266|pmid=31953166|doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009}}{{open access}}</ref> [[pneumonia]], [[kidney failure]] and [[death]] in severe cases.<ref>[https://www.ontario.ca/page/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov#section-4 Government of Ontario]</ref><ref name="wmhc2020-01-11">{{cite web|url=http://wjw.wuhan.gov.cn/front/web/showDetail/2020011109036|title=Experts explain the latest bulletin of unknown cause of viral pneumonia|date=11 January 2020|website=Wuhan Municipal Health Commission|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111031745/http://wjw.wuhan.gov.cn/front/web/showDetail/2020011109036|archive-date=11 January 2020|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref> Among the majority of those hospitalized, [[vital signs]] were stable on admission, and they had [[leukopenia]] and [[lymphocytopenia|lymphopenia]].<ref name="Hui14Jan2020" /> However, a quarter among those infected have experienced severe symptoms. Most of these patients also presented underlying conditions such as hypertension, diabetes or cardiovascular disease.<ref>https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-statement-on-the-advice-of-the-ihr-emergency-committee-on-novel-coronavirus</ref>

==Virology==
===Reservoir===

During 17 years of research on the origin of the [[SARS]] 2003 epidemic, many [[Bat_SARS-like_coronavirus_WIV1|SARS-like]] [[bat]] coronaviruses were isolated and [[DNA_sequencing|sequenced]], most of them originating from the ''[[Rhinolophus]]'' [[genus]]. With enough genomes it is possible to reconstruct a [[phylogenetic tree]] of the mutation history of a family of virus.

The Wuhan novel coronavirus has been found to fall into this category of SARS-like coronavirus. Two genome sequences from ''[[Rhinolophus sinicus]]'' with a resemblance of 80% had been published in 2015 and 2017.<ref>Sample [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/MG772933 CoVZC45] and [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/MG772934 CoVZXC21], see [https://nextstrain.org/groups/blab/sars-like-cov there for an interactive visualization]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The 2019 new Coronavirus epidemic: evidence for virus evolution|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.01.24.915157v1|doi=10.1101/2020.01.24.915157v1|doi-broken-date=2020-01-25}}</ref> A third unpublished virus genome from ''[[Intermediate_horseshoe_bat|Rhinolophus affinis]]'' with a resemblance of 96% to Wuhan novel coronavirus is mentioned in an article from the [[Wuhan Institute of Virology]].<ref name="bioRxivBatOrigin">{{cite journal |title=Discovery of a novel coronavirus associated with the recent pneumonia outbreak in humans and its potential bat origin |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.01.22.914952v2|author=Wuhan institue of virology|website=bioRxiv|publisher=[[bioRxiv]] |accessdate=January 24, 2020|date=January 23, 2020|doi=10.1101/2020.01.22.914952v2|doi-broken-date=2020-01-25}}</ref> For comparison, this amount of mutation is similar to amount of mutation observed over 10 years in the H3N2 human flu.<ref>[https://nextstrain.org/flu/seasonal/h3n2/ha/2y?clade=3c3 Nextstrain H3N2]</ref>

Animals sold for food are suspected to be the reservoir or the intermediary because many of first identified infected individuals were workers at the [[Huanan Seafood Market]]. Consequently, they were exposed to greater contact with animals.<ref name="Hui14Jan2020" />

===Phylogenetics and taxonomy===
This virus belongs to the family of [[coronavirus]]es. Coronaviruses form a large family of viruses, and the illnesses they cause can range from the [[common cold]] to more severe diseases such as the [[Middle East respiratory syndrome]] (MERS) and [[severe acute respiratory syndrome]] (SARS). Coronaviruses are a broad family of viruses, but only six ([[Human coronavirus 229E|229E]], [[Human coronavirus NL63|NL63]], [[Human coronavirus OC43|OC43]], [[Human coronavirus HKU1|HKU1]], [[Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|MERS-CoV]], and [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|SARS-CoV]]) were previously known to infect people; 2019-nCoV made it seven.<ref name="NEJM">{{cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Na |last2=Zhang |first2=Dingyu |last3=Wang |first3=Wenling |last4=Li |first4=Xinwang |last5=Yang |first5=Bo |last6=Song |first6=Jingdong |last7=Zhao |first7=Xiang |last8=Huang |first8=Baoying |last9=Shi |first9=Weifeng |last10=Lu |first10=Roujian |last11=Niu |first11=Peihua |last12=Zhan |first12=Faxian |last13=Ma |first13=Xuejun |last14=Wang |first14=Dayan |last15=Xu |first15=Wenbo |last16=Wu |first16=Guizhen |last17=Gao |first17=George F. |last18=Tan |first18=Wenjie |title=A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019 |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=24 January 2020 |volume=0 |pages=null |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001017 |issn=0028-4793}}</ref>

Sequences of Wuhan betacoronavirus show similarities to [[betacoronavirus]]es found in bats; however, the virus is genetically distinct from other [[coronavirus]]es such as ''[[Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (SARS-CoV) and ''[[Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (MERS-CoV).<ref name=":1" /> Like SARS-CoV, it is a member of Beta-CoV lineage B<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nextstrain.org/groups/blab/sars-like-cov|title=Phylogeny of SARS-like betacoronaviruses|website=nextstrain|accessdate=18 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Hui14Jan2020" /> (i. e. subgenus ''[[Sarbecovirus]]''<ref name="Wong2019">{{vcite journal|authors=Antonio C. P. Wong, Xin Li, Susanna K. P. Lau, Patrick C. Y. Woo|pmc=6409556|title=Global Epidemiology of Bat Coronaviruses|journal=Viruses|year=2019 Feb|volume=11|issue=2|pages=174|doi=10.3390/v11020174}}</ref>). Its [[RNA]] sequence is approximately 30 [[Base pair#Length measurements|kb]] in length.<ref name=":1" />

By 12 January, five genomes of the novel coronavirus have been isolated from Wuhan and reported including BetaCoV/Wuhan/IVDC-HB-01/2019, BetaCoV/Wuhan/IVDC-HB-04/2020, BetaCoV/Wuhan/IVDC-HB-05/2019, BetaCoV/Wuhan/WIV04/2019, and BetaCoV/Wuhan/IPBCAMS-WH-01/2019 from the [[Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention|China CDC]], [[Institute of Pathogen Biology]], and [[Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://virological.org/t/initial-genome-release-of-novel-coronavirus/319|title=Initial genome release of novel coronavirus|date=11 January 2020|website=Virological|access-date=12 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=17 January 2020|title=Wuhan seafood market pneumonia virus isolate Wuhan-Hu-1, complete genome|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/MN908947.3|publisher=ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> Further samples have increased this number to 27. Except for the earliest GenBank genome, the rest of the genomes are under an embargo at GISAID. A phylogenic analysis for the samples is available through Nextstrain.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nextstrain.org/ncov|title=Genomic epidemiology of novel coronavirus (nCoV) using data generated by Fudan University, China CDC, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention and the Thai National Institute of Health shared via GISAID|last=Trevor Bedford and Richard Neher|website=nextstrain.org|url-status=live|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref>

===Structural biology===
The publications of the genome has led to several [[Protein_structure_prediction|protein modeling]] experiments on the receptor binding protein (RBD) of the nCoV spike (S) protein. A Chinese group wrote on January 16 that the modelled S protein retains sufficient affinity to the SARS receptor ([[angiotensin-converting enzyme 2]], ACE2) to use it as a mechanism of cell entry.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Evolution of the novel coronavirus from the ongoing Wuhan outbreak and modeling of its spike protein for risk of human transmission|url=http://engine.scichina.com/publisher/scp/journal/SCLS/doi/10.1007/s11427-020-1637-5|journal=SCIENCE CHINA Life Sciences|doi=10.1007/s11427-020-1637-5|doi-broken-date=2020-01-24|accessdate=23 January 2020}}<!-- Broken DOI --></ref> On January 22nd, two groups, one in China working with full virus and the other in the US, working with reverse genetics, independently and experimentally demonstrated ACE2 as the receptor for 2019-nCoV.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Letko|first1=Michael|last2=Munster|first2=Vincent|date=2020|title=Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for lineage B β-coronaviruses, including 2019-nCoV|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.01.22.915660v1|journal=BiorXiv|language=en|doi=10.1101/2020.01.22.915660|accessdate=24 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zhou|first1=Peng|last2=Shi|first2=Zheng-Li|date=2020|title=Discovery of a novel coronavirus associated with the recent pneumonia outbreak in humans and its potential bat origin|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.01.22.914952v2|journal=BiorXiv|language=en|doi=10.1101/2020.01.22.914952|accessdate=24 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gralinski|first1=Lisa E.|last2=Menachery|first2=Vineet D.|date=2020|title=Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.3390/v12020135}}</ref>

To look for potential drugs, the viral protease M(pro) was also modelled for drug docking experiments. Innophore has produced two computational models based on SARS protease available for download.<ref name=inno-dock>{{cite web|url=https://innophore.com/2019-ncov/|title=Wuhan coronavirus 2019-nCoV - what we can find out on a structural bioinformatics level|last1=Gruber|first1=Christian|last2=Steinkellner|first2=Georg|date=23 January 2020|website=Innophore Enzyme Discovery|publisher=Innophore GmbH}}</ref> The Chinese Academy of Sciences produced an experimental structure of a recombinant 2019-nCoV protease on January. The model by Rao ZH and Yang HT's group was not immediately released to the [[Protein Data Bank]].<ref name=cas-dock>{{cite web |title=上海药物所和上海科技大学联合发现一批可能对新型肺炎有治疗作用的老药和中药 |url=http://www.cas.cn/syky/202001/t20200125_4732909.shtml |website=Chinese Academy of Sciences |date=2020-01-25}}</ref>


==Transmission==
==Transmission==

Revision as of 05:21, 26 January 2020

This article is about a virus. For the outbreak of this virus, see 2019–20 Wuhan coronavirus outbreak.

Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)
Transmission electron micrograph of two 2019-nCoV virions
Transmission electron micrograph of two 2019-nCoV virions
Virus classification Edit this classification
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Pisuviricota
Class: Pisoniviricetes
Order: Nidovirales
Family: Coronaviridae
Genus: Betacoronavirus
Subgenus: Sarbecovirus
Virus:
Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)
SARS-CoV-2 is located in China
SARS-CoV-2
Wuhan, China, the epicentre of the only recorded outbreak
Synonyms
  • Wuhan coronavirus
  • Wuhan seafood market pneumonia virus
  • Wuhan pneumonia
Genomic information
Genome organisation (click to enlarge)
NCBI genome IDMN908947
Genome size30,473 bases
Year of completion2020

Novel coronavirus, denoted 2019-nCoV by the WHO (Chinese: 2019新型冠状病毒)[1][2] and also known as Wuhan coronavirus (simplified Chinese: 武汉冠状病毒; traditional Chinese: 武漢冠狀病毒) and Wuhan seafood market pneumonia virus[3] is a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA coronavirus. The first suspected cases were notified to WHO on 31 December 2019,[4] with the first instances of symptomatic illness appearing just over three weeks earlier on 8 December 2019.[5] The virus was genomically sequenced after nucleic acid testing on a positive patient sample in a patient with pneumonia during the 2019–20 Wuhan coronavirus outbreak.[6][7][8]

Outbreak

Main article: 2019–20 Wuhan coronavirus outbreak
Main article: Timeline of the 2019–20 Wuhan coronavirus outbreak

The first known outbreak was first detected in Wuhan, China, around mid December of 2019. The virus subsequently spread to Thailand (Bangkok); Japan (Tokyo); Taiwan (Taoyuan); South Korea (Seoul); other provinces of Mainland China; Hong Kong;[9] and then internationally.

Scientists at the Medical Research Council's Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis at Imperial College London estimate that 4,000 people are infected with the coronavirus and are displaying symptoms within the city of Wuhan by 18 January 2020.[10]

The death toll had risen to 56 as of 25 January 2020.[11]

Signs and symptoms

Reported symptoms have included fever, fatigue, dry cough, shortness of breath, respiratory distress,[12] pneumonia, kidney failure and death in severe cases.[13][14] Among the majority of those hospitalized, vital signs were stable on admission, and they had leukopenia and lymphopenia.[12] However, a quarter among those infected have experienced severe symptoms. Most of these patients also presented underlying conditions such as hypertension, diabetes or cardiovascular disease.[15]

Virology

Reservoir

During 17 years of research on the origin of the SARS 2003 epidemic, many SARS-like bat coronaviruses were isolated and sequenced, most of them originating from the Rhinolophus genus. With enough genomes it is possible to reconstruct a phylogenetic tree of the mutation history of a family of virus.

The Wuhan novel coronavirus has been found to fall into this category of SARS-like coronavirus. Two genome sequences from Rhinolophus sinicus with a resemblance of 80% had been published in 2015 and 2017.[16][17] A third unpublished virus genome from Rhinolophus affinis with a resemblance of 96% to Wuhan novel coronavirus is mentioned in an article from the Wuhan Institute of Virology.[18] For comparison, this amount of mutation is similar to amount of mutation observed over 10 years in the H3N2 human flu.[19]

Animals sold for food are suspected to be the reservoir or the intermediary because many of first identified infected individuals were workers at the Huanan Seafood Market. Consequently, they were exposed to greater contact with animals.[12]

Phylogenetics and taxonomy

This virus belongs to the family of coronaviruses. Coronaviruses form a large family of viruses, and the illnesses they cause can range from the common cold to more severe diseases such as the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Coronaviruses are a broad family of viruses, but only six (229E, NL63, OC43, HKU1, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV) were previously known to infect people; 2019-nCoV made it seven.[20]

Sequences of Wuhan betacoronavirus show similarities to betacoronaviruses found in bats; however, the virus is genetically distinct from other coronaviruses such as Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV).[8] Like SARS-CoV, it is a member of Beta-CoV lineage B[21][12] (i. e. subgenus Sarbecovirus[22]). Its RNA sequence is approximately 30 kb in length.[8]

By 12 January, five genomes of the novel coronavirus have been isolated from Wuhan and reported including BetaCoV/Wuhan/IVDC-HB-01/2019, BetaCoV/Wuhan/IVDC-HB-04/2020, BetaCoV/Wuhan/IVDC-HB-05/2019, BetaCoV/Wuhan/WIV04/2019, and BetaCoV/Wuhan/IPBCAMS-WH-01/2019 from the China CDC, Institute of Pathogen Biology, and Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital.[8][23][24] Further samples have increased this number to 27. Except for the earliest GenBank genome, the rest of the genomes are under an embargo at GISAID. A phylogenic analysis for the samples is available through Nextstrain.[25]

Structural biology

The publications of the genome has led to several protein modeling experiments on the receptor binding protein (RBD) of the nCoV spike (S) protein. A Chinese group wrote on January 16 that the modelled S protein retains sufficient affinity to the SARS receptor (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, ACE2) to use it as a mechanism of cell entry.[26] On January 22nd, two groups, one in China working with full virus and the other in the US, working with reverse genetics, independently and experimentally demonstrated ACE2 as the receptor for 2019-nCoV.[27][28][29]

To look for potential drugs, the viral protease M(pro) was also modelled for drug docking experiments. Innophore has produced two computational models based on SARS protease available for download.[30] The Chinese Academy of Sciences produced an experimental structure of a recombinant 2019-nCoV protease on January. The model by Rao ZH and Yang HT's group was not immediately released to the Protein Data Bank.[31]

Transmission

Human-to-human transmission was confirmed in Guangdong, China on 20 January 2020, according to Zhong Nanshan, head of the health commission team investigating the outbreak.[32]

Treatment

No specific treatment for the virus is currently available, but existing anti-virals could be repurposed.[33]

Molecular docking experiments by Innophore GmbH and Chinese scientists have found many potential protease inhibitors. Innophore found many hits, including both new chemicals and old drugs like lopinavir.[34] The Chinese Academy of Sciences focused on existing drugs and botanicals. Several existing antivirals as well as cinanserin and cyclosporine A are predicted to be effective by the CAS with follow-up tests in progress.[35]

Vaccine research

In January 2020, based on the 2019-nCoV published genome[36][37] (see #Phylogenetics and taxonomy below), several projects, three supported by the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), began work on creating a vaccine for the Wuhan coronavirus.[38] The United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) started cooperating with the biotechnology company Moderna to create a vaccine, hoping to start production by May 2020. Their strategy is to make an RNA vaccine matching a spike of the coronavirus surface.[36] The University of Queensland (UQ) aims for a molecular clamp vaccine that genetically modifies viral proteins to make them mimic the coronavirus and stimulate an immune reaction.[38] CEPI supports the Moderna and UQ projects and another by Inovio.[38] An independent project is that of the University of Saskatchewan's Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization – International Vaccine Centre (VIDO-InterVac), which received permission from the Public Health Agency of Canada to begin work on a vaccine.[39] VIDO-InterVac aims to start production and non-human animal testing in March 2020, and human testing in 2021.[37]

References

  1. ^ "Surveillance case definitions for human infection with novel coronavirus (nCoV)". who.int. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
  2. ^ "Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), Wuhan, China". cdc.gov. cdc.gov. 10 January 2020. Retrieved 16 January 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  3. ^ Zhang, Y.-Z.; et al. (12 January 2020). "Wuhan seafood market pneumonia virus isolate Wuhan-Hu-1, complete genome". GenBank. Bethesda MD. Retrieved 13 January 2020.
  4. ^ "Pneumonia of unknown cause – China. Disease outbreak news". World Health Organization. 5 January 2020. Archived from the original on 7 January 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2020.
  5. ^ Schnirring, Lisa (14 January 2020). "Report: Thailand's coronavirus patient didn't visit outbreak market". CIDRAP. Archived from the original on 14 January 2020. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  6. ^ "中国疾病预防控制中心". chinacdc.cn. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  7. ^ "New-type coronavirus causes pneumonia in Wuhan: expert". Xinhua. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  8. ^ a b c d "CoV2020". platform.gisaid.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  9. ^ "China coronavirus: Hong Kong widens criteria for suspected cases after second patient confirmed, as MTR cancels Wuhan train ticket sales". South China Morning Post. 23 January 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2020.
  10. ^ BBC: China coronavirus: Fear grips Wuhan as lockdown begins
  11. ^ "Death Toll From Coronavirus in China Reaches 56, Over 300 New Cases Registered". Sputnik News. 25 January 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2020.
  12. ^ a b c d Hui DS, I Azhar E, Madani TA, Ntoumi F, Kock R, Dar O, Ippolito G, Mchugh TD, Memish ZA, Drosten C, Zumla A, Petersen E. The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health – The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China. Int J Infect Dis. 2020 Jan 14;91:264–266. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009. PMID 31953166.Open access icon
  13. ^ Government of Ontario
  14. ^ "Experts explain the latest bulletin of unknown cause of viral pneumonia". Wuhan Municipal Health Commission. 11 January 2020. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2020.
  15. ^ https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-statement-on-the-advice-of-the-ihr-emergency-committee-on-novel-coronavirus
  16. ^ Sample CoVZC45 and CoVZXC21, see there for an interactive visualization
  17. ^ "The 2019 new Coronavirus epidemic: evidence for virus evolution". doi:10.1101/2020.01.24.915157v1 (inactive 25 January 2020). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2020 (link)
  18. ^ Wuhan institue of virology (23 January 2020). "Discovery of a novel coronavirus associated with the recent pneumonia outbreak in humans and its potential bat origin". bioRxiv. bioRxiv. doi:10.1101/2020.01.22.914952v2 (inactive 25 January 2020). Retrieved 24 January 2020.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2020 (link)
  19. ^ Nextstrain H3N2
  20. ^ Zhu, Na; Zhang, Dingyu; Wang, Wenling; Li, Xinwang; Yang, Bo; Song, Jingdong; Zhao, Xiang; Huang, Baoying; Shi, Weifeng; Lu, Roujian; Niu, Peihua; Zhan, Faxian; Ma, Xuejun; Wang, Dayan; Xu, Wenbo; Wu, Guizhen; Gao, George F.; Tan, Wenjie (24 January 2020). "A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019". New England Journal of Medicine. 0: null. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2001017. ISSN 0028-4793.
  21. ^ "Phylogeny of SARS-like betacoronaviruses". nextstrain. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
  22. ^ Antonio C. P. Wong, Xin Li, Susanna K. P. Lau, Patrick C. Y. Woo. Global Epidemiology of Bat Coronaviruses. Viruses. 2019 Feb;11(2):174. doi:10.3390/v11020174.
  23. ^ "Initial genome release of novel coronavirus". Virological. 11 January 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  24. ^ "Wuhan seafood market pneumonia virus isolate Wuhan-Hu-1, complete genome". ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 17 January 2020. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  25. ^ Trevor Bedford and Richard Neher. "Genomic epidemiology of novel coronavirus (nCoV) using data generated by Fudan University, China CDC, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention and the Thai National Institute of Health shared via GISAID". nextstrain.org. Retrieved 22 January 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  26. ^ "Evolution of the novel coronavirus from the ongoing Wuhan outbreak and modeling of its spike protein for risk of human transmission". SCIENCE CHINA Life Sciences. doi:10.1007/s11427-020-1637-5 (inactive 24 January 2020). Retrieved 23 January 2020.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2020 (link)
  27. ^ Letko, Michael; Munster, Vincent (2020). "Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for lineage B β-coronaviruses, including 2019-nCoV". BiorXiv. doi:10.1101/2020.01.22.915660. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
  28. ^ Zhou, Peng; Shi, Zheng-Li (2020). "Discovery of a novel coronavirus associated with the recent pneumonia outbreak in humans and its potential bat origin". BiorXiv. doi:10.1101/2020.01.22.914952. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
  29. ^ Gralinski, Lisa E.; Menachery, Vineet D. (2020). "Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV". Viruses. 12 (2): 135. doi:10.3390/v12020135.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  30. ^ Gruber, Christian; Steinkellner, Georg (23 January 2020). "Wuhan coronavirus 2019-nCoV - what we can find out on a structural bioinformatics level". Innophore Enzyme Discovery. Innophore GmbH.
  31. ^ "上海药物所和上海科技大学联合发现一批可能对新型肺炎有治疗作用的老药和中药". Chinese Academy of Sciences. 25 January 2020.
  32. ^ "China confirms human-to-human transmission of new coronavirus". CBC News. 20 January 2020. Retrieved 21 January 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  33. ^ "WHO says new China coronavirus could spread, warns hospitals worldwide". Reuters. 14 January 2020. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
  34. ^ Gruber, Christian; Steinkellner, Georg (23 January 2020). "Wuhan coronavirus 2019-nCoV - what we can find out on a structural bioinformatics level". Innophore Enzyme Discovery. Innophore GmbH.
  35. ^ "上海药物所和上海科技大学联合发现一批可能对新型肺炎有治疗作用的老药和中药". Chinese Academy of Sciences. 25 January 2020.
  36. ^ a b Steenhuysen, Julie; Kelland, Kate (24 January 2020). "With Wuhan virus genetic code in hand, scientists begin work on a vaccine". Thomson Reuters. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2020.
  37. ^ a b "Saskatchewan lab joins global effort to develop coronavirus vaccine". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 24 January 2020. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2020.
  38. ^ a b c Devlin, Hannah (24 January 2020). "Lessons from Sars outbreak help in race for coronavirus vaccine". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2020.
  39. ^ Yahoo News: Saskatchewan lab joins global effort to develop coronavirus vaccine
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