Social class in the United Kingdom

The social structure of the United Kingdom continues to be built on notions of social class. Though definitions of social class vary, most are linked to factors such as occupation, level of education and wealth. Until recently even the Parliament of the United Kingdom was organised on a class basis, with the House of Lords representing the hereditary upper class, and the House of Commons representing everyone else — technically the "commoners". The Queen maintains her status at the top of the social class structure.

Since the 1980s there have been a number of social changes — the reform of the House of Lords, the expansion of home-ownership and higher education — which have altered the social landscape. Some have gone so far as to proclaim a classless society, although such claims have been met with scepticism.

Historical background

At the time of the formation of the United Kingdom in 1707, England and Scotland had similar class based social structures and social class continued as an important feature in the UK. Some basic categories covering most of the population of the UK around this time are as follows:

British caste	Characteristics
Cottagers and labourers	Cottagers were a step below husbandmen, in that they had to work for others for wages. Lowest order of the working castes; perhaps vagabonds, drifters, criminals or other outcasts would be lower.
Husbandman (or other tradesmen)	A tradesman or farmer who either rented a home or held very little land; a non land-holding farmer was a husbandman. In feudal times, this person likely would have been a serf, and paid a large portion of his work or produce to the land-holding lord.
Yeoman	The yeoman class generally included small farmers who held a reasonable amount of land and were able to protect themselves from neighbouring lords et cetera. They played a military role as longbowmen. Sometimes Merchant citizens are placed between Yeoman and Gentry in early modern social hierarchy.
Gentry/Gentleman	The gentry by definition held enough assets to live on rents without working, and so could be well educated. If they worked it was in law, as priests, in politics, or in other educated pursuits without manual labour. The term Esquire was used for landowners who were not knighted. Many gentry families were armigerous and of ancient lineage possessing great wealth and large estates.
Knight	The definition of a knight depends upon the century in which the term was applied. In very early medieval times a knight was a common soldier; later as cavalry became more important the knight's role became more associated with wealth. By the seventeenth century a knight was a senior member of the gentry, and the military role would be one of sheriff of a county, or organizing a larger body of military forces, or in civil service exercising judicial authority. He was a large land owner, and his younger sons would often be lawyers, priests, or officials of some sort.
Baronet (hereditary, non peer)	A baronet held a hereditary style of knighthood, giving the highest rank below a peerage.
Peer (Noble/Archbishop)	The peers were generally large land holders, living solely off assets, sat in the House of Lords and either held court or played a role in court depending upon the time frame referenced.
Royal	A member of the royal family, a prince, a close relative of the queen or king.

Heraldry and social class

Main article: Heraldry

Canting arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon

An English subject with arms registered in the College of Arms, or a Scotsman in the Lyon Court, can be referred to as armigerous. Any British subject can apply for arms from their respective authority but only those of sufficient social standing would be granted arms. Arms in and of themselves are imperfectly aligned with social status, in that many of high status will have no right to arms whilst, on the other hand, those entitled to arms by descent can include branches of families which have fallen far down the social scale. Nevertheless, a right to bear arms under the Law of Arms is, by definition, linked either to the personal acquisition of social status, inspiring application for a personal grant of arms, or to descent from a person who did so in the past. Rightly or wrongly, therefore, the use of a coat of arms is linked to social prestige. In the early twentieth century, it was argued by heraldic writers such as Arthur Charles Fox-Davies that only those with a right to a coat of arms could correctly be described (if men) as gentlemen and of noble status; however, even at the time this argument was controversial, and it was rejected by other writers such as Oswald Barron and Horace Round. In the Order of Malta, where proof of technical nobility is a requirement of certain grades of membership, British members must still base their proof upon an ancestral right to a coat of arms.

20th century

Social grade classification

The social grade classification created by the National Readership Survey over 50 years ago achieved widespread usage during the 20th Century including in government reports and statistics.

Grade	Occupation
A	Higher managerial, administrative or professional
B	Intermediate managerial, administrative or professional
C1	Supervisory or clerical and junior managerial, administrative or professional
C2	Skilled manual workers
D	Semi and unskilled manual workers
E	Casual or lowest grade workers, pensioners and others who depend on the state for their income

21st century

National Statistics Socio Economic Classification (2001)

Main article: National Statistics Socio-economic Classification

The UK Office of National Statistics (ONS) produced a new socio-economic classification in 2001. The reason was to provide a more comprehensive and detailed classification to take newer employment patterns into account.

Group	Description	Old equivalent
1	Higher Professional and Managerial	A
2	Lower Managerial and Professional	B
3	Intermediate occupations	C1 and C2
4	Small Employers and non professional self-employed	C1 and C2
5	Lower Supervisory and technical	C1 and C2
6	Semi Routine Occupations	D
7	Routine Occupations	D
8	Long term unemployed	E

Class structure

Below is a description of the various social classes.

Upper classes

See also: Ruling class, Upper class, and Upper middle class

The upper class in Britain is statistically very small and consists of the peerage, gentry, and landowners. These people were traditionally the wealthiest in the land having inherited money and position. Typically they would speak with Received Pronunciation accent and have been educated at public schools.

In the United Kingdom, entry to the upper class is still considered difficult, if not impossible, to attain unless one is born into it. Marriage into upper-class families rarely results in complete integration, since many factors (to be outlined below) raise a challenging barrier between the upper, upper middle, and middle classes.

Titles, while often considered central to the upper class, are not always strictly so. Both Captain Mark Phillips and Vice Admiral Timothy Laurence, the respective first and second husbands of HRH The Princess Anne lacked any rank of peerage, yet could scarcely be considered to be anything other than upper class. The same is true of Francis Fulford, who memorably featured in Channel 4's documentary The F***ing Fulfords and whose family has owned estates in Devon for over 800 years. In fact the Fulfords represent the group that makes up the largest component of the upper class: the landed gentry.

That being said, those in possession of a hereditary (as opposed, importantly, to a conferred) peerage – for example a Dukedom, a Marquessate, an Earldom, a Viscounty or a Barony (though any of these may be conferred) – will, almost invariably, be members of the upper class, though a Life Peerage is that of the rank of Baron, most Life Peers are not Upper Class.

Where one was educated is often considered to be more important than the level of education attained. Traditionally, upper class children will be brought up — at home — by a Nanny for the first few years of life, until old enough to attend a well-established prep school or pre-preparatory school. Moving into secondary education, it is still commonplace for upper-class children to attend one of Britain's prestigious public schools, typically Ampleforth College, Eton College, Harrow School, Marlborough College, Rugby School, Westminster School and Winchester College, although it is not unheard of for certain families to send their children to grammar schools.

Insofar as continuing education goes, this can vary from family to family; it may, in part, be based on the educational history of the family. In the past, both the British Army and Clergy have been the institutions of choice, but the same can equally apply to the Royal Navy, or work in the Diplomatic Corps. HRH Prince Harry of Wales, for instance, completed training at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in preparation for entry into the Army. Otherwise, Oxbridge,the London School of Economics, Imperial College and other 'traditional' universities (such as Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, and St Andrews University) are the most popular sources of higher education for the upper class, although a high academic standard is required and social class does not as readily secure entry as it once did.

Sports — particularly those involving the outdoors — are a popular pastime, and are usually taken up from a school age or before, and improved upon throughout the educational years. Traditionally, at school, rugby union is much more popular than football: indeed, the two sports are often taken to represent the two extremes of social classes 'at play', although paradoxically rugby is not played at Winchester. Other frequented sports include lawn tennis (which has a broad appeal and could hardly be considered to be dominated by any one class), croquet (quite the opposite), cricket and golf.

Equestrian activities are also popular — with both sexes. There is a long-standing tradition of the upper class having close links to horses; indeed, one of the foremost example of three-day eventing prowess is Zara Philips, daughter of Princess Anne and recently-crowned Sunday Times Sportswoman of the Year. Men who ride will more often participate in polo, as is the case with both HRH Prince Charles and his sons, Their Royal Highnesses Prince William and Prince Harry.

Hunting and shooting, too, are favoured pastimes. Some upper class families with large estates will run their own shoots (typically they would need 1,000 acres (4 km²), or more, though some shoots do operate on about half that), but many will know someone who keeps pheasants, or other game, and may instead shoot with them. Much as with horses, there is a particular affinity for dogs (especially Labradors and spaniels) amongst the upper class — and, equally, sporting pursuits that involve them. It should, however, be noted that none of the aforementioned sports are, of course, exclusively upper class.

Language, pronunciation and writing style have been, consistently, one of the most reliable indicators of class. (Upper and otherwise.) The variations between the language employed by the upper classes and those not of the upper classes has, perhaps, been best documented by linguistic Professor Alan Ross's 1954 article on U and non-U English usage. The discussion was furthered in Noblesse Oblige - and featured contributions from, among others, Nancy Mitford. The debate was revisited in the mid-1970s, in a publication by Debrett's called 'U and Non-U revisited'. Ross contributed to this volume too, and it is remarkable to notice how little the language (amongst other factors) changed in the passing of a quarter of a century.

Woburn Abbey, family seat of the Duke of Bedford

The choice of house ('home', to a non-U-speaker), too, is an important feature of the upper class. While it is true that there are fewer upper class families that are able to maintain both the well-staffed town house and country house than in the past, there are still many families that have a hereditary 'seat' somewhere in the country that they have managed to retain: Woburn Abbey, for example, has been in the family of the Duke of Bedford for centuries. Many upper class country houses are now open to the public, or have been placed in the care of the National Trust to aid with the funding of much-needed repairs. (In some cases, both are true).

The inside of a house, however grand the façade, is equally indicative of class. An upper class house (if privately owned, and not staffed) tends to be a comparatively untidy composite of grand furniture — having been inherited — which may have become frayed and threadbare over time and vast piles of ancient books, papers and other old reading material for which there is now no home.

Many upper class families will be in possession of works of art by old masters, valuable sculpture or period furniture, having had said pieces handed down through several generations. Indeed, inheriting the vast majority of one's possessions is the traditional form in upper class families. On that point, there is a well-known derisive quotation from Conservative politician Michael Jopling, who referred to cabinet colleague Michael Heseltine as the kind of person who 'bought his own furniture' (in the Alan Clark Diaries). (The former was then put down himself by a Baron as "the kind of person who bought his own castle".)

So too is the organisation (or lack thereof) of the garden an important upper class trait. Bedding plants, rockeries, hanging baskets and goldfish ponds will be nowhere evident; instead we find avenues of limes or sequoia, box hedges, shrub roses, herbaceous borders and stone pathways. Upper class gardens will look more natural and unconstructed than artificially preened (although as with houses, this is not always true where staff are employed).

Money and material possessions are often thought of as a less important factor for the United Kingdom's upper class than for the upper classes of other countries; although this allows for an upper class family to be impoverished, an upper class family is likely to have had wealth at some point in its history.

Vast financial prosperity (only slightly dependent on how it is earned) is the subject of derision and contempt — the nickname “fat cat,” suggesting mercenariness, is not one often levelled at members of the upper class. According to anthropologist Kate Fox, the main difference between the English and American social system is that in the latter, the rich and powerful believe they deserve their wealth and power and are more complacent. In the former, they tend to have a greater sense of social responsibility and compassion for those less privileged than themselves. However, Fox's thesis is undercut by the fact that America has a vibrant culture of civic engagement, especially in the form of volunteerism [1]. Additionally, Americans donate more money, as a percentage of GDP, to charity than the British do [2]. It is, of course, also significant that the British government has more extensive social welfare programs than the US government, and that private charity is therefore less of a necessity in Britain: GNI numbers, then, as opposed to GDP numbers, suggest different conclusions regarding the respective generosity of each nation [3].

The middle class

See also: Middle class, Lower middle class, Bourgeoisie, and Professional class

Upper middle class

The upper middle class in Britain typically consists of professionals with tertiary education, speaking Received Pronunciation. The higher upper middle class are traditionally educated at more prestigious Public Schools. The lower section of the upper middle class tend to occupy less prestigious public schools.

Traditional careers would include barristers, doctors, Army officers, academics, art dealers, senior civil servants, the clergy and working within the City of London in high managerial positions.[2] A typical Mosaic geodemographic type for this group would be cultural leadership.

This is a very specific class in England and is, in many respects, peculiar to England as its characteristics do not fit easily within the social gradations of the other constituent nations of the United Kingdom. Frequently its members are members of professions (traditionally the law, the military and the clergy, more recently extending to medicine, academia and finance), although merchants too were able to penetrate its ranks. However, being a member of a profession does not automatically elevate a person to this class, and it is quite common for an upper middle class person not to work in a traditional profession.

Higher-end upper middle class families may also have previous ancestry that often directly relates to the upper classes. Although not necessarily of the landowning classes - as a result, perhaps, of lack of a male heir - many families' titles/styles have not been inherited and therefore many families' past status became dissolved.

An English subject with arms registered in the College of Arms, or a Scotsman in the Lyon Court, can be referred to as armigerous (armiger). Any British subject can apply for arms from their respective authority but only those of sufficient social standing would be granted arms. Arms in and of themselves are imperfectly aligned with social status, in that many of high status will have no right to arms whilst, on the other hand, those entitled to arms by descent can include branches of families which have fallen far down the social scale. Nevertheless, a right to bear arms under the Law of Arms is, by definition, linked either to the personal acquisition of social status, inspiring application for a personal grant of arms, or to descent from a person who did so in the past. Rightly or wrongly, therefore, the use of a coat of arms is linked to social prestige.

In the early twentieth century, it was argued by heraldic writers such as Arthur Charles Fox-Davies that only those with a right to a coat of arms could correctly be described (if men) as gentlemen and of noble status; however, even at the time this argument was controversial, and it was rejected by other writers such as Oswald Barron and Horace Round. In the Order of Malta, where proof of technical nobility is a requirement of certain grades of membership, British members must still base their proof upon an ancestral right to a coat of arms.

Popular modern day examples of the upper middle class include David Cameron (British Prime Minister), Hugh Grant (British Hollywood actor), Matthew Pinsent (British Olympian and TV personality) and Christopher Cazenove.

Middle middle class

Urban 4 wheel drive vehicles ("Chelsea tractors") are a controversial symbol of the middle classes

Middle middle class in Britain typically consists of bourgeois with degrees from the less prestigious universities, or possibly no tertiary education. They would speak in accents which are provincial as well as Estuary English and received pronunciation. They would be engaged in owning and running local businesses; working for larger corporations as junior and middle management; teaching,social work and engineering, accountancy, information technology, nursing and other skilled jobs. Displays of conspicuous consumption are considered vulgar by them; instead they prefer to channel excess income into investments, including property. They are highly politically and socially engaged and might be regular churchgoers, sit on local committees and governing boards or stand for political office. Education is greatly valued by the middle classes: they will make every effort to ensure their children get a university education; although they are often unable to afford private schooling, they will go to great lengths to get their children into "good" state schools, such as moving house into the catchment area. They also value culture and make up a significant proportion of the book-buying and theatre -going public. They prefer TV documentaries and dramas over reality shows, BBC radio 4 over pop stations and broadsheet newspapers over tabloids. Typical Mosaic geodemographic types would include Provincial Privilege. The comedy character Margo Leadbetter is a satirical stereotype for this group, as is Jilly Cooper's Howard Weybridge.

Nouveau riche

Main article: Nouveau riche

Nouveau riche are people from poorer backgrounds who have made money themselves, primarily in business, middle-class professions, or entertainment. They may retain the mannerisms of their original social group or may imitate the behaviour of the traditional upper class by, for instance, sending their children to public school or taking elocution lessons, but often in a way that is seen as gauche by the real upper class and middle classes (satirised as Mr Nouveau Richards by Jilly Cooper). This group is characterised by ostentatious displays of conspicuous consumption. Premier League Footballers are typical of this group.

Spiralist meritocracy

This group was identified by Jilly Cooper in her book Class as people from working class or lower middle class backgrounds who gained an education at grammar school and university and have subsequently obtained professional or managerial jobs within companies or government. Jilly Cooper stated that these people are more likely to move geographically than the more local bourgeois middle middle class. These people are less socially secure than the traditional upper middle class, and would speak in a mixture of accents depending on their origin. A typical Mosaic Geodemographic type for this group would be Corporate Chieftains

Mondeo Man

Mondeo Man was described by Kate Fox as a person employed in the private sector in a salesman or entry level management position who drives a company car such as a Ford Mondeo. These people would have had limited education and cultural aspirations, but are keen to "move up in the world" and are seen by politicians and marketers as representing Middle England. An example of a person from this social group in UK popular culture is Gareth Cheeseman. Motorway man is considered by polling organisations to be the current equivalet of Mondeo Man.

Lower middle class

The lower middle class in Britain consists of people in white collar jobs living in less prosperous suburbs. They would typically not have had a university education, at least before the 1980s expansion in higher education. These people would speak in local accents, although relatively mild. A shibboleth for people from this group is the use of the word pardon rather than sorry or say again when they have not been able to hear the other speaker (referred to as Pardonia by Kate Fox). Typical Mosaic Geodemographic types for this group would include Sprawling Subtopia or for Successful British Asians Asian Enterprise. The Comedy character Hyacinth Bucket is a satirical stereotype for this social group. Votes in this area are split and minority parties will have a stronger proportion.

The working class

Further information: Working class

Skilled working class

These people would be in skilled blue collar jobs, traditionally in industry but in recent decades showing entrepreneurial development as the stereotypical white van man, or self employed contractors. These people would speak in local accents and have craft apprenticeships rather than university education. Typical Mosaic types for this group include White Van Culture or Affluent Blue Collar. More likely to vote conservative than the unskilled working class. The lifestyle they aspire to is that of nouveau-riche celebrities rather than the traditional upper and middle classes. Fictional examples of working-class entrepreneurs include Phil and Grant Mitchell in Eastenders, who are involved in a number of business enterprises, and Del Boy Trotter, for all that he is aspirational rather than successful. The Coogan's Run character Ernest Moss represents the traditional skilled workman.

Unskilled working class

Terraced housing was originally built for the working classes.

Traditionally, these people would work in blue collar jobs with low incomes. They would typically have left school as soon as legally permissible and not value education. Examples of Mosaic geodemographic groups for these people would be Coronation Street or Rustbelt Resilience. Fictional stereotypes include Andy Capp and Albert Steptoe, who is not only unaspirational himself but crushes the aspirations of his son Harold. They are the mainstay of the Labour party vote, but there are also working class conservatives, as exemplified by Alf Garnett.

It has been argued that with the decline in manufacturing and increase in the service sector, lower-paid white collar jobs are effectively working class. Call centres in particular, have sprung up in former centres of industry.

The underclass

A 16 floor tower block in Charlestown, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom

Identified as emerging in the 1990s, this group consists of the long-term unemployed, single-parent families and elderly pensioners, dependent on state benefits. Many would be in public housing or council estates. Typical Mosaic Geodemographic types for these people are Tower Block Living or Sharing a stair case.

See also

• Income in the United Kingdom
• Poverty in the United Kingdom
• Mosaic (geodemography) - System designed to classify Britain by Postcode, into 11 main groups and 61 types.

Language as a class indicator

• U and non-U English - Social Vocabulary from the 1950s compiled by Nancy Mitford. U represented Upper & Upper middle class vocabulary of the time and Non-U represented lower middle class vocabulary.
• Received Pronunciation, England's prestige accent used by Upper Class and Upper Middle class people. (A Scottish equivalent can be found in Morningside, Edinburgh, which has the highest concentration of millionaires in the UK outside of London)
• Estuary English - Traditionally a lower middle class accent from Southeast England now more widely used and influencing RP
• Cockney - Traditionally the working class accent of London
• Mockney - A deliberate affectation of the working-class London (Cockney) accent by Middle class people to gain "street credibility"

UK social stereotypes

• Toff - upper class, aristocratic
• Rah - Upper to upper middle class
• Sloane Ranger - Upper to upper middle class
• Worcester woman - Lower middle to middle middle class
• Essex Man - Skilled working class, materialistic
• White van man - Working class, entrepreneurial, aggressive driver
• Chav, charver (North-East England and Yorkshire), scallie (North West England) or Ned (Scotland) - anti-social working, or underclass

Bibliography

• Jilly Cooper Class, A view from Middle England, Eyre Methuen, 1979, ISBN 0552115258
• Kate Fox Watching the English, Nicholas Brealey Pub., 2004, ISBN 1857885082

External links

• David Cannadine, The Rise and Fall of Class in Britain
• JP Somerville, University of Wisconsin page on early modern social class in Britain
• Mosaic Geodemographics Summary
• Article from The Times on Taste and class
• Article from The Times - are we all Middle class now
• Article from the Times - Can you buy your way into the Upper Class
• Article from the Times
• article from Daily Telegraph on social mobility