Pear: Difference between revisions
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To grow a pears tree, fill a hole with cheese, juggle pine apples, as your dog barks Jingle Bells. Then put the baby tree in the ground. After this, hold an actual baby over the tree for 9min 27 seconds! |
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{{Redirect|Pyrus}} |
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{{Other uses}} |
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{{Taxobox |
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| name = Pears |
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| image = Pears.jpg |
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| image_caption = [[European Pear]] branch with fruit |
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| regnum = [[Plant]]ae |
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| unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]] |
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| unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] |
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| unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]] |
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| ordo = [[Rosales]] |
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| familia = [[Rosaceae]] |
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| subfamilia = [[Maloideae]] or [[Spiraeoideae]] <ref name=Potter>{{cite journal|author=Potter, D. ''et al.''|year=2007|title=Phylogeny and classification of Rosaceae|doi=10.1007/s00606-007-0539-9|journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution|volume=266|issue=1–2|pages=5–43}}</ref> |
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| tribus = [[Pyreae]]<ref name=Potter/> |
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| genus = '''''Pyrus''''' |
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| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] |
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| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]] |
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| subdivision = |
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About 30 species; see text |
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}} |
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The '''pear''' is any of several tree species of [[genus]] '''''Pyrus''''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|p|aɪ|r|ə|s}}) and also the name of the [[pome|pomaceous]] [[fruit]] of these trees. Several species of pear are valued by humans for their edible fruit, but the fruit of other species is small, hard, and astringent. |
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The genus ''Pyrus'' is classified in subtribe [[Pyrinae]] within tribe [[Pyreae]]. The [[apple]] (''Malus domestica''), which it resembles in floral structure, is also a member of this subcategory. |
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The [[English language|English]] word “pear” is probably from Common [[West Germanic]] ''pera'', probably a [[loanword]] of [[Vulgar Latin]] ''pira'', the plural of ''pirum'', akin to [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἄπιος ''apios'' (from Mycenaean ''ápisos''), which is likely of [[Semitic]] origin. The [[Perry (disambiguation)|place name ''Perry'']] and ''Pharisoulopol'' can indicate the historical presence of pear trees. The term "pyriform" is sometimes used to describe something which is "pear-shaped". |
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==History== |
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[[File:Bradford 9288.JPG|left|thumb|[[Callery Pear]]s in flower]] |
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[[File:PearLaFrance.jpg|left|thumb|Pear, "La France" (Japan)]] |
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[[File:PearBlossomsCalifornia.jpg|thumb|right|Pear blossoms]] |
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The [[Pomology|cultivation]] of the pear in cool [[temperate climate]]s extends to the [[Prehistory|remotest]] [[antiquity]], and there is evidence of its use as a food since prehistoric times. Many traces of it have been found in the [[Lake dwelling|Swiss lake-dwelling]]s. The word “pear”, or its [[Cognate|equivalent]], occurs in all the [[Celtic languages]], while in [[Slavonic languages|Slavonic]] and other dialects differ in appellations, but still referring to the same thing, are found—a diversity and multiplicity of [[nomenclature]] which led [[Alphonse de Candolle]] to infer a very ancient cultivation of the tree from the shores of the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] to those of the [[Atlantic]]. |
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Pears grow in the sublime [[orchard]] of [[Alcinous]], in ''[[Odyssey]]'' vii: "Therein grow trees, tall and luxuriant, pears and [[pomegranate]]s and [[apple]]-trees with their bright fruit, and sweet [[ficus|fig]]s, and luxuriant [[olive]]s. Of these the fruit perishes not nor fails in [[winter]] or in summer, but lasts throughout the year." |
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The pear was also cultivated by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who did not eat them raw{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}: [[Pliny's Natural History]] recommended [[stewing]] them with honey and noted three dozen varieties. The Roman cookbook attributed to [[Apicius]], ''[[Apicius#De_re_coquinaria|De re coquinaria]]'', has a recipe for a spiced, stewed-pear ''patina'', or soufflé.<ref>{{cite book|title=Apicius (with an introd. and an Engl. transl.)|year=2006|publisher=Prospect Books|location=Blackawton, Totnes|isbn=978-1-903018-13-2|page=IV.2.35 |author1=Sally Grainger|author2=Christopher Grocock|edition=Critical}}</ref> |
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A certain race of pears, with white down on the [[Epidermis (botany)|under surface]] of their leaves, is supposed to have originated from ''P. nivalis'', and their fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of [[perry]] (see also [[cider]]). Other small-fruited pears, distinguished by their early ripening and apple-like fruit, may be referred to ''P. cordata'', a species found wild in western [[France]], and in [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]]. Pears have been cultivated in [[China]] for approximately 3000 years. |
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The [[genus]] is thought to have originated in present-day western China in the foothills of the [[Tian Shan]], a [[mountain range]] of [[Central Asia]], and to have spread to the north and south along mountain chains, [[Evolution|evolving]] into a diverse group of over 20 widely recognized primary species {{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}. The enormous number of varieties of the cultivated [[Europe]]an pear (''Pyrus communis'' subsp. ''communis''), are without doubt derived from one or two [[wild]] [[subspecies]] (''P. communis'' subsp. ''pyraster'' and ''P. communis'' subsp. ''caucasica''), widely distributed throughout Europe, and sometimes forming part of the natural [[vegetation]] of the [[forest]]s. In [[England]], where an ancient pear tree gave its name to{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}<!-- contradicts "Perry Barr" article which says this is NOT the origin of the name --> ''Pirio'' ([[Perry Barr]], a district of Birmingham) in [[Domesday]], the pear is sometimes considered wild; there is always the doubt that it may not really be so, but the produce of some seed of a cultivated tree deposited by [[bird]]s or otherwise, which has germinated as a wild-form spine-bearing tree. [[Court (royal)|Court]] accounts of [[Henry III of England]] record pears shipped from [[Rochelle]] and presented to the King by the Sheriffs of London. The French names of pears grown in English medieval gardens suggests that their reputation, at the least, was French; a favored variety in the accounts was named for Saint Rule or Regul', [[bishop of Senlis]].<ref name=Cecil>{{cite book|author=Evelyn Cecil|title=A History of Gardening in England|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Fk4KTrvZ8nMC|accessdate=12 April 2011|date=July 2006|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4286-3680-4|pages=35 ff}}</ref> |
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Asian species with medium to large [[edible]] fruit include ''P. pyrifolia'', ''P. ussuriensis'', ''P. × bretschneideri'', ''P. × sinkiangensis'', and ''P. pashia.'' Other small-fruited species are frequently used as [[rootstock]]s for the cultivated forms. |
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==Botany== |
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Pears are native to coastal and mildly temperate regions of the [[Old World]], from western [[Europe]] and north [[Africa]] east right across [[Asia]]. They are medium-sized trees, reaching 10–17 m tall, often with a tall, narrow crown; a few species are [[shrub]]by. The [[leaf|leaves]] are alternately arranged, simple, 2–12 cm long, glossy green on some species, densely silvery-hairy in some others; leaf shape varies from broad oval to narrow lanceolate. Most pears are [[deciduous]], but one or two species in southeast Asia are [[evergreen]]. Most are cold-hardy, withstanding temperatures between −25 °C and −40 °C in winter, except for the evergreen species, which only tolerate temperatures down to about −15 °C. |
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The [[flower]]s are white, rarely tinted yellow or pink, 2–4 cm diameter, and have five petals.<ref name="pearfruit">http://www.bouquetoffruits.com/fruit-facts/pear-facts.html {{dead link|date=April 2011}}</ref> Like that of the related [[apple]], the pear fruit is a [[pome]], in most wild species 1–4 cm diameter, but in some cultivated forms up to 18 cm long and 8 cm broad; the shape varies in most species from oblate or globose, to the classic pyriform '[[pear shaped|pear-shape]]' of the [[European Pear]] with an elongated basal portion and a bulbous end. |
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The fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower-stalk (the so-called [[calyx (botany)|calyx]] tube) greatly dilated. Enclosed within its cellular flesh is the true fruit: five [[cartilaginous]] [[carpels]], known colloquially as the "core". From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five [[sepal]]s{{Vague|now you are talking about the flower again|date=July 2009}}, the five [[petal]]s, and the very numerous [[stamen]]s. |
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The pear is very similar to the [[apple]] in cultivation, [[Fruit tree propagation|propagation]] and [[Fruit tree pollination|pollination]]. The pear and the apple are also related to the [[quince]]. |
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Pears and apples cannot always be distinguished by the form of the fruit; some pears look very much like some apples. One major difference is that the flesh of pear fruit contains [[Ground tissue#Sclereids|stone cells]] (also called "grit"). Pear trees and apple trees do have several visible differences. |
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According to Pear Bureau Northwest, there are about 3000 known varieties of pears grown worldwide. In the United States only 10 heirloom varieties are widely recognized: Green Bartlett, Red Bartlett, Bosc, Green Anjou, Red Anjou, Comice, Forelle, Seckel, Concorde, and Starkrimson. <ref>[http://usapears.com/Recipes%20And%20Lifestyle/Now%20Serving/Pears%20and%20Varieties.aspx Pear Varieties]. usapears.com. Retrieved on 2011-04-12.</ref> |
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===Major recognized taxa=== |
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[[File:204VicarWinkfield.jpg|thumb|right|Vicar of Winkfield pear, a heritage variety, no longer commonly found, [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]]]] |
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[[File:DriedPears.JPG|thumb|right|Pears are sometimes eaten dried]] |
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{| |
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|- valign=top |
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*''[[Pyrus amygdaliformis]]''—Almond-leafed Pear |
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*''[[Pyrus armeniacifolia]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus boissieriana]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus bourgaeana]]''—Iberian Pear |
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*''[[Pyrus × bretschneideri]]''—Chinese white pear; also classified as a subspecies of ''Pyrus pyrifolia'' |
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*''[[Callery Pear|Pyrus calleryana]]''—Callery Pear |
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*''[[Pyrus communis]]'' subsp. ''communis''—European Pear (cultivars include [[d'Anjou|Beurre d'Anjou]], [[Williams pear|Bartlett]] and [[Bosc Pear|Beurre Bosc]]) |
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*''Pyrus communis '' subsp. ''caucasica'' ([[syn.]] ''P. caucasica'') |
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*''Pyrus communis'' subsp. ''pyraster''—Wild European Pear ([[syn.]] ''P. pyraster'') |
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*''[[Pyrus cordata]]''—Plymouth Pear |
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*''[[Pyrus cossonii]]''—Algerian Pear |
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*''[[Pyrus dimorphophylla]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus elaeagnifolia]]''—Oleaster-leafed Pear <!----> |
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*''[[Pyrus fauriei]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus gharbiana]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus glabra]]'' |
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*''Pyrus hondoensis'' |
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*''[[Pyrus koehnei]]''—Evergreen pear of southern China and Taiwan |
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*''[[Pyrus korshinskyi]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus mamorensis]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus nivalis]]''—Snow Pear |
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*''[[Pyrus pashia]]''—Afghan Pear |
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*''[[Pyrus ×phaeocarpa]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus pseudopashia]]'' |
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*''[[Nashi Pear|Pyrus pyrifolia]]''—Nashi Pear, Sha Li |
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*''[[Pyrus regelii]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus salicifolia]]''—Willow-leafed Pear |
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*''[[Pyrus × serrulata]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus × sinkiangensis]]''—thought to be an interspecific hybrid between ''P. ''×''bretschneideri'' and ''Pyrus communis'' |
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*''[[Pyrus syriaca]]'' |
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*''[[Pyrus ussuriensis]]''—Siberian Pear |
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*''[[Pyrus xerophila]]'' |
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|} |
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== Ecology == |
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In the wild, some species such as the Iberian pear are dispersed by mammals and some birds.<ref>Fedriani, JM and Delibes, M. 2009. "Seed dispersal in the Iberian pear, ''Pyrus bourgaeana'': A role for infrequent mutualists." ''Ecoscience'' 16: 311-321.</ref> |
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==Cultivation== |
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The pear is frequently raised by sowing the pips (seeds) of ordinary cultivated or of wild kinds, these forming what are known as free or pear stocks, on which the choicer varieties are [[Grafting|grafted]] for increase. Both quince and clonally-produced pear rootstocks are also used for ''Pyrus communis'' orchards. For new varieties the flowers can be [[Cross-breeding|cross-bred]] to preserve or combine desirable traits. The fruit of the pear is produced on spurs, which appear on shoots more than one year old.{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} |
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Three species account for the vast majority of edible fruit production, the [[European Pear]] ''Pyrus communis'' subsp. ''communis'' cultivated mainly in Europe and [[North America]], the Chinese white pear (bai li) ''Pyrus ×bretschneideri'', and the [[Nashi Pear]] ''Pyrus pyrifolia'' (also known as Asian Pear or Apple Pear), both grown mainly in eastern Asia. There are thousands of [[cultivar]]s of these three species. A species grown in western China, ''P. sinkiangensis'', and ''P. pashia'', grown in southern China and south Asia, are also produced to a lesser degree. |
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Other species are used as [[rootstock]]s for European and Asian pears and as [[ornamental plant|ornamental trees]]. The [[Siberian Pear]], ''Pyrus ussuriensis'' (which produces unpalatable fruit) has been crossed with ''Pyrus communis'' to breed hardier pear cultivars. The [[Callery Pear|Bradford Pear]] (''Pyrus calleryana'' 'Bradford') in particular has become widespread in North America and is used only as an ornamental tree, as well as a blight-resistant rootstock for ''Pyrus communis'' fruit orchards. The [[Willow-leafed Pear]] (''Pyrus salicifolia'') is grown for its attractive slender, densely silvery-hairy leaves. |
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===Harvest=== |
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Summer and autumn [[cultivar]]s of ''Pyrus communis'', being [[Climacteric fruits]] are gathered before they are fully ripe, while they are still green, but snap off when lifted. In the case of the 'Passe Crassane', long the favored winter pear in [[France]], the crop should is traditionally gathered at three different times: the first a fortnight or more before it is ripe, the second a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe. The first gathering will come into eating last, and thus the season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged. |
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Nashi pears are allowed to ripen on the tree. |
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===Diseases and pests=== |
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{{Main|List of pear diseases|List of Lepidoptera that feed on pear trees}} |
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===Production=== |
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[[File:2005pear and quince.svg|300px|thumb|right|Pear and [[quince]] output in 2005]] |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|- |
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! colspan=5|Top ten pear producers |
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|- |
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! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| Country |
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! style="background:#ddf; width:15%;"| Production ([[tonne]]s) |
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! style="background:#ddf; width:10%;"| Footnote |
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|- |
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| {{PRC}} || align=right |12,625,000 || align=right | F |
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|- |
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| {{ITA}} || align=right |840,516 || align=right | |
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|- |
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| {{USA}} || align=right |799,180 || align=right | |
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|- |
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| {{ESP}} || align=right |537,400 || align=right | |
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|- |
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| {{ARG}} || align=right |520,000 || align=right | F |
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|- |
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| {{KOR}} || align=right |425,000 || align=right | F |
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|- |
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| {{TUR}} || align=right |349,420 || align=right | |
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|- |
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| {{JPN}} || align=right |325,000 || align=right | F |
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|- |
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| {{ZAF}} || align=right |325,000 || align=right | F |
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|- |
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| {{NLD}} || align=right |224,000 || align=right | F |
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|- style="background:#ccc;" |
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|| '''World''' |
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| style="text-align:right;"| '''20,105,683''' |
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| style="text-align:right;"| '''A''' |
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|- |
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|colspan=5 style="font-size:.7em"|No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official, or estimates);<br> |
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Source: [http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division] |
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|} |
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==Storage== |
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Pears may be stored at room temperature until ripe.<ref name=cpma>[http://www.cpma.ca/en_hea_storage.asp Canadian Produce Marketing Association > Home Storage Guide for Fresh Fruits & Vegetables] Retrieved August 2010</ref> Pears are ripe when flesh around stem gives to gentle pressure.<ref name=cpma/> Ripe pears are optimally stored refrigerated, uncovered in a single layer, where they have a shelf life of 2 to 3 days.<ref name=cpma/> |
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==Uses== |
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[[File:Pyrus communis gestoofde stoofpeer Gieser Wildeman.jpg|right|thumb|''Gieser Wildeman'' simmered in red wine.]] |
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Pears are consumed fresh, canned, as [[juice]], and [[dried fruit|dried]]. The juice can also be used in [[Jelly (fruit preserves)|jellies]] and [[jam]]s, usually in combination with other fruits or berries. Fermented pear juice is called [[perry]] or pear cider. |
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Pears ripen at room temperature. They will [[ethylene|ripen faster]] if placed next to [[banana]]s in a fruit bowl.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://extension.oregonstate.edu/gardening/pears-can-be-ripened-perfection |title=Pears can be ripened to perfection |work=extension.oregonstate.edu |year=2011 [last update] |author= Judy Scott |author2=David Sugar |accessdate=August 30, 2011}}</ref> Refrigeration will slow further ripening. Pear Bureau Northwest offers tips on ripening and judging ripeness: Although the skin on Bartlett pears changes from green to yellow as they ripen, most varieties show little color change as they ripen. Because pears ripen from the inside out, the best way to judge ripeness is to "Check the Neck." To Check the Neck for ripeness, apply gentle thumb pressure to the neck, or stem end of the pear. If it yields to gentle pressure, then the pear is ripe, sweet, and juicy. If it is firm, leave pear at room temperature and Check the Neck daily for ripeness. Source: [http://www.usapears.org/Recipes%20And%20Lifestyle/Culinary%20Corner/Produce-Guide.aspx Pear Bureau Northwest] |
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The culinary or cooking pear is green but dry and hard and only edible after several hours of cooking. Two Dutch cultivars are "Gieser Wildeman" and "Saint Remy". They are traditionally stewed in wine with spices and served both warm and cold.<ref>[http://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/566/ Dutch stewed pears]. Davesgarden.com. Retrieved on 2011-04-12.</ref> |
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Pear [[wood]] is one of the preferred materials in the manufacture of high-quality [[woodwind]] instruments and [[furniture]]. It is also used for wood carving, and as a [[firewood]] to produce aromatic smoke for smoking meat or [[tobacco]]. Pear wood is valued for kitchen spoons, scoops and stirrers, as it does not contaminate food with color, flavor or smell and resists warping and splintering despite repeated soaking and drying cycles. Lincoln describes it as "a fairly tough, very stable wood... (used for) carving... brushbacks, umbrella handles, measuring instruments such as set squares and T-squares... recorders... violin and guitar fingerboards and piano keys... decorative veneering." Pearwood is the favored wood for architect's rulers because it does not warp. It is similar to the wood of its relative, the apple tree, (''Pyrus malus'' [also called ''[[Malus domestica]]'']) and used for many of the same purposes.<ref>Lincoln, William (1986). ''World Woods in Color''. Fresno, California, USA: Linden Publishing Co. Inc.. pp. 33, 207. ISBN 0-941936-20-1.</ref> |
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Pear leaves were smoked in Europe before tobacco was introduced.<ref>[http://info-tabac.noname.fr/histoire-du-tabac.html Info Tabac: histoire du tabac], accessed 3 June 2010. {{fr icon}}</ref><ref>[http://tabac-net.aphp.fr/tab-connaitre/tc-article/tc-art-histoire.html Bertrand Dautzenberg] (no date). Epidémiologie des maladies liées au tabac, accessed 3 June 2010. {{fr icon}}</ref> |
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==Health benefits== |
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{{nutritionalvalue | name=Pear, raw | kJ=242 | protein=0.38 g | fat=0 g | carbs=15.46 g | fiber=3.1 g | | sugars=9.80 g | iron_mg=0.17 | calcium_mg=9 | magnesium_mg=7 | phosphorus_mg=11 | potassium_mg=119 | zinc_mg=0.10 | vitC_mg=4.2 | pantothenic_mg=0.048 | vitB6_mg=0.028 | folate_ug=7 | thiamin_mg=0.012 | riboflavin_mg=0.025 | niacin_mg=0.157 | right=1 | source_usda=1 }} |
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Pears are an excellent source of [[dietary fiber]] and a good source of [[Vitamin C]]. According to the FDA's final rule dated July 25, 2006 "Food Labeling; Guidelines for Voluntary Nutrition Labeling of Raw Fruits, Vegetables, and Fish," the nutritional content of a medium-sized fresh pear weighing 166g/5.9oz is as follows:<br> |
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{| |
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|Calories ||100 |
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|Calories from fat: ||0 |
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|- |
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|Total fat: ||0g/0% |
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|- |
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|Saturated fat: ||0g/0% |
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|- |
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|Trans fat: ||0g/0% |
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|- |
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|Cholesterol: ||0 mg/0% |
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|- |
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|Sodium: ||0 mg/0% |
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|- |
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|Potassium: ||190 mg/5% |
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|- |
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|Total carbohydrate: ||26 mg/9% |
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|- |
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|Dietary Fiber: ||6g/24% |
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|- |
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|Sugars: ||16g |
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|- |
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|Protein: ||1g |
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|- |
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|Vitamin A: ||0% |
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|- |
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|Vitamin C: ||10% |
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|- |
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|Calcium: ||2% |
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|- |
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|Iron: ||0% |
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|} |
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Pears are less [[allergenic]] than many other fruits, and pear juice is therefore sometimes used as the first juice introduced to infants.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.freediets.com/fruits-vegetables/the-wonder-of-pears |title = The wonder of pears |publisher = FreeDiets }}</ref> However, caution is recommended for all fruit juice consumption by infants as studies have suggested a link between excessive fruit juice consumption and reduced nutrient intake as well as a tendency towards obesity.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Patricia Queen Samour|author2=Kathy King Helm|author3=Carol E. Lang|title=Handbook of Pediatric Nutrition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1j_Tn-iXbMwC&pg=PA89|accessdate=12 April 2011|year=1999|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-0-7637-3305-6|pages=89–}}</ref> Pears are low in [[salicylates]] and [[benzoates]] and are therefore recommended in exclusion diets for allergy sufferers.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.sswahs.nsw.gov.au/rpa/allergy/research/excldiet.pdf|title=An Australian exclusion diet|year= 1978|pmid=661687|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia |volume=1|pages=290–292|last1=Gibson|first1=AR|last2=Clancy|first2=RL|issue=5}}</ref> Along with [[domestic sheep|lamb]] and [[rice]], pears may form part of the strictest exclusion diet for allergy sufferers<ref>[http://www.allergy-clinic.co.uk/food_allergy_for_public.htm A. Morris 2008 ''A Guide to Suspected Food Allergy'', Surrey Allergy Clinic, U. K.]</ref> |
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Pears can be useful in treating inflammation of [[mucous membrane]]s, [[colitis]], chronic [[gallbladder disorders]], [[arthritis]], and [[gout]]. Pears can also be beneficial in lowering [[high blood pressure]], controlling blood [[cholesterol]] levels, and increasing urine acidity. |
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In ancient Greece, pears were used to treat nausea. |
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Most of the fiber is insoluble, making pears a good laxative. The gritty fiber content may cut down on the number of cancerous [[colon polyp]]s. Most of the [[vitamin C]], as well as the dietary fiber, is contained within the skin of the fruit.<ref>{{cite book|author=Phyllis A. Balch|title=Prescription for Dietary Wellness|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Z_kueEFK0f0C&pg=PA67|accessdate=12 April 2011|date=13 May 2003|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-58333-147-7|pages=67–}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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* [[List of culinary fruits]] |
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==References== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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{{1911}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Wiktionary}} |
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{{Commons category|Pears}} |
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{{Cookbook|Pear}} |
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{{wikispecies|Pyrus}} |
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* [http://www.calpear.com/recipes/default.aspx California Pear Recipes] – Over one hundred pear recipes from California Pears. |
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* [http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/horticulture/pomes/euro-varieties European pear varieties] – description of Australian commercial pears |
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* [http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Fi-Go/Fruit-in-Mythology.html Fruit in mythology] – Symbolism of pears |
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* [http://botany.metalibrary.net/books/bartrum/pearsandplums Handbook of Practical Gardening] – Gardening information on pears. |
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* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pearinhistory.pdf "The Pear in History, Literature, Popular Culture, and Art"] |
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* [http://www.pearpanache.com Pear Panache] – a collection of pear recipes for chefs and by chefs |
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* [http://www.usapears.org/Recipes%20And%20Lifestyle/Now%20Serving/Recipes.aspx Pear Recipes] – collection of pear recipes from Pear Bureau Northwest |
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* [http://www.calpear.com/our-fruit/varieties-availability.aspx Pear Varieties] – Information about pear varieties grown in California. |
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* [http://www.uga.edu/fruit/pear.html University of Georgia Pear Page] – History of cultivation and commerce. |
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* [http://www.usapears.com/en/Recipes%20And%20Lifestyle/Now%20Serving/Pears%20and%20Varieties.aspx USA Pears] – descriptions of pear varieties from a U.S. advocacy group. |
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* [http://www.cirrusimage.com/tree_wild_pear.htm Wild Pear, ''Pyrus pyraster''] – Diagnostic photos, [[Morton Arboretum]] specimens |
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{{Pyrus}} |
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Revision as of 15:41, 7 October 2011
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2007) |
| Pears | |
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| European Pear branch with fruit | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | |
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| Genus: | Pyrus |
| Species | |
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About 30 species; see text | |
The pear is any of several tree species of genus Pyrus (/[invalid input: 'icon']ˈpaɪrəs/) and also the name of the pomaceous fruit of these trees. Several species of pear are valued by humans for their edible fruit, but the fruit of other species is small, hard, and astringent.
The genus Pyrus is classified in subtribe Pyrinae within tribe Pyreae. The apple (Malus domestica), which it resembles in floral structure, is also a member of this subcategory.
The English word “pear” is probably from Common West Germanic pera, probably a loanword of Vulgar Latin pira, the plural of pirum, akin to Greek ἄπιος apios (from Mycenaean ápisos), which is likely of Semitic origin. The place name Perry and Pharisoulopol can indicate the historical presence of pear trees. The term "pyriform" is sometimes used to describe something which is "pear-shaped".
History
The cultivation of the pear in cool temperate climates extends to the remotest antiquity, and there is evidence of its use as a food since prehistoric times. Many traces of it have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings. The word “pear”, or its equivalent, occurs in all the Celtic languages, while in Slavonic and other dialects differ in appellations, but still referring to the same thing, are found—a diversity and multiplicity of nomenclature which led Alphonse de Candolle to infer a very ancient cultivation of the tree from the shores of the Caspian to those of the Atlantic.
Pears grow in the sublime orchard of Alcinous, in Odyssey vii: "Therein grow trees, tall and luxuriant, pears and pomegranates and apple-trees with their bright fruit, and sweet figs, and luxuriant olives. Of these the fruit perishes not nor fails in winter or in summer, but lasts throughout the year."
The pear was also cultivated by the Romans, who did not eat them raw[citation needed]: Pliny's Natural History recommended stewing them with honey and noted three dozen varieties. The Roman cookbook attributed to Apicius, De re coquinaria, has a recipe for a spiced, stewed-pear patina, or soufflé.[2]
A certain race of pears, with white down on the under surface of their leaves, is supposed to have originated from P. nivalis, and their fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of perry (see also cider). Other small-fruited pears, distinguished by their early ripening and apple-like fruit, may be referred to P. cordata, a species found wild in western France, and in Devon and Cornwall. Pears have been cultivated in China for approximately 3000 years.
The genus is thought to have originated in present-day western China in the foothills of the Tian Shan, a mountain range of Central Asia, and to have spread to the north and south along mountain chains, evolving into a diverse group of over 20 widely recognized primary species [citation needed]. The enormous number of varieties of the cultivated European pear (Pyrus communis subsp. communis), are without doubt derived from one or two wild subspecies (P. communis subsp. pyraster and P. communis subsp. caucasica), widely distributed throughout Europe, and sometimes forming part of the natural vegetation of the forests. In England, where an ancient pear tree gave its name to[citation needed] Pirio (Perry Barr, a district of Birmingham) in Domesday, the pear is sometimes considered wild; there is always the doubt that it may not really be so, but the produce of some seed of a cultivated tree deposited by birds or otherwise, which has germinated as a wild-form spine-bearing tree. Court accounts of Henry III of England record pears shipped from Rochelle and presented to the King by the Sheriffs of London. The French names of pears grown in English medieval gardens suggests that their reputation, at the least, was French; a favored variety in the accounts was named for Saint Rule or Regul', bishop of Senlis.[3]
Asian species with medium to large edible fruit include P. pyrifolia, P. ussuriensis, P. × bretschneideri, P. × sinkiangensis, and P. pashia. Other small-fruited species are frequently used as rootstocks for the cultivated forms.
Botany
Pears are native to coastal and mildly temperate regions of the Old World, from western Europe and north Africa east right across Asia. They are medium-sized trees, reaching 10–17 m tall, often with a tall, narrow crown; a few species are shrubby. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple, 2–12 cm long, glossy green on some species, densely silvery-hairy in some others; leaf shape varies from broad oval to narrow lanceolate. Most pears are deciduous, but one or two species in southeast Asia are evergreen. Most are cold-hardy, withstanding temperatures between −25 °C and −40 °C in winter, except for the evergreen species, which only tolerate temperatures down to about −15 °C. The flowers are white, rarely tinted yellow or pink, 2–4 cm diameter, and have five petals.[4] Like that of the related apple, the pear fruit is a pome, in most wild species 1–4 cm diameter, but in some cultivated forms up to 18 cm long and 8 cm broad; the shape varies in most species from oblate or globose, to the classic pyriform 'pear-shape' of the European Pear with an elongated basal portion and a bulbous end.
The fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower-stalk (the so-called calyx tube) greatly dilated. Enclosed within its cellular flesh is the true fruit: five cartilaginous carpels, known colloquially as the "core". From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals[vague], the five petals, and the very numerous stamens.
The pear is very similar to the apple in cultivation, propagation and pollination. The pear and the apple are also related to the quince.
Pears and apples cannot always be distinguished by the form of the fruit; some pears look very much like some apples. One major difference is that the flesh of pear fruit contains stone cells (also called "grit"). Pear trees and apple trees do have several visible differences.
According to Pear Bureau Northwest, there are about 3000 known varieties of pears grown worldwide. In the United States only 10 heirloom varieties are widely recognized: Green Bartlett, Red Bartlett, Bosc, Green Anjou, Red Anjou, Comice, Forelle, Seckel, Concorde, and Starkrimson. [5]
Major recognized taxa
|
Ecology
In the wild, some species such as the Iberian pear are dispersed by mammals and some birds.[6]
Cultivation
The pear is frequently raised by sowing the pips (seeds) of ordinary cultivated or of wild kinds, these forming what are known as free or pear stocks, on which the choicer varieties are grafted for increase. Both quince and clonally-produced pear rootstocks are also used for Pyrus communis orchards. For new varieties the flowers can be cross-bred to preserve or combine desirable traits. The fruit of the pear is produced on spurs, which appear on shoots more than one year old.[citation needed]
Three species account for the vast majority of edible fruit production, the European Pear Pyrus communis subsp. communis cultivated mainly in Europe and North America, the Chinese white pear (bai li) Pyrus ×bretschneideri, and the Nashi Pear Pyrus pyrifolia (also known as Asian Pear or Apple Pear), both grown mainly in eastern Asia. There are thousands of cultivars of these three species. A species grown in western China, P. sinkiangensis, and P. pashia, grown in southern China and south Asia, are also produced to a lesser degree.
Other species are used as rootstocks for European and Asian pears and as ornamental trees. The Siberian Pear, Pyrus ussuriensis (which produces unpalatable fruit) has been crossed with Pyrus communis to breed hardier pear cultivars. The Bradford Pear (Pyrus calleryana 'Bradford') in particular has become widespread in North America and is used only as an ornamental tree, as well as a blight-resistant rootstock for Pyrus communis fruit orchards. The Willow-leafed Pear (Pyrus salicifolia) is grown for its attractive slender, densely silvery-hairy leaves.
Harvest
Summer and autumn cultivars of Pyrus communis, being Climacteric fruits are gathered before they are fully ripe, while they are still green, but snap off when lifted. In the case of the 'Passe Crassane', long the favored winter pear in France, the crop should is traditionally gathered at three different times: the first a fortnight or more before it is ripe, the second a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe. The first gathering will come into eating last, and thus the season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged.
Nashi pears are allowed to ripen on the tree.
Diseases and pests
Production
| Top ten pear producers | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country | Production (tonnes) | Footnote | ||
 People's Republic of China |
12,625,000 | F | ||
 Italy |
840,516 | |||
 United States |
799,180 | |||
 Spain |
537,400 | |||
 Argentina |
520,000 | F | ||
 South Korea |
425,000 | F | ||
 Turkey |
349,420 | |||
 Japan |
325,000 | F | ||
 South Africa |
325,000 | F | ||
 Netherlands |
224,000 | F | ||
| World | 20,105,683 | A | ||
| No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official, or estimates); | ||||
Storage
Pears may be stored at room temperature until ripe.[7] Pears are ripe when flesh around stem gives to gentle pressure.[7] Ripe pears are optimally stored refrigerated, uncovered in a single layer, where they have a shelf life of 2 to 3 days.[7]
Uses
Pears are consumed fresh, canned, as juice, and dried. The juice can also be used in jellies and jams, usually in combination with other fruits or berries. Fermented pear juice is called perry or pear cider.
Pears ripen at room temperature. They will ripen faster if placed next to bananas in a fruit bowl.[8] Refrigeration will slow further ripening. Pear Bureau Northwest offers tips on ripening and judging ripeness: Although the skin on Bartlett pears changes from green to yellow as they ripen, most varieties show little color change as they ripen. Because pears ripen from the inside out, the best way to judge ripeness is to "Check the Neck." To Check the Neck for ripeness, apply gentle thumb pressure to the neck, or stem end of the pear. If it yields to gentle pressure, then the pear is ripe, sweet, and juicy. If it is firm, leave pear at room temperature and Check the Neck daily for ripeness. Source: Pear Bureau Northwest
The culinary or cooking pear is green but dry and hard and only edible after several hours of cooking. Two Dutch cultivars are "Gieser Wildeman" and "Saint Remy". They are traditionally stewed in wine with spices and served both warm and cold.[9]
Pear wood is one of the preferred materials in the manufacture of high-quality woodwind instruments and furniture. It is also used for wood carving, and as a firewood to produce aromatic smoke for smoking meat or tobacco. Pear wood is valued for kitchen spoons, scoops and stirrers, as it does not contaminate food with color, flavor or smell and resists warping and splintering despite repeated soaking and drying cycles. Lincoln describes it as "a fairly tough, very stable wood... (used for) carving... brushbacks, umbrella handles, measuring instruments such as set squares and T-squares... recorders... violin and guitar fingerboards and piano keys... decorative veneering." Pearwood is the favored wood for architect's rulers because it does not warp. It is similar to the wood of its relative, the apple tree, (Pyrus malus [also called Malus domestica]) and used for many of the same purposes.[10]
Pear leaves were smoked in Europe before tobacco was introduced.[11][12]
Health benefits
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy | 242 kJ (58 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
15.46 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sugars | 9.80 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dietary fiber | 3.1 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.38 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[13] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[14] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pears are an excellent source of dietary fiber and a good source of Vitamin C. According to the FDA's final rule dated July 25, 2006 "Food Labeling; Guidelines for Voluntary Nutrition Labeling of Raw Fruits, Vegetables, and Fish," the nutritional content of a medium-sized fresh pear weighing 166g/5.9oz is as follows:
| Calories | 100 |
| Calories from fat: | 0 |
| Total fat: | 0g/0% |
| Saturated fat: | 0g/0% |
| Trans fat: | 0g/0% |
| Cholesterol: | 0 mg/0% |
| Sodium: | 0 mg/0% |
| Potassium: | 190 mg/5% |
| Total carbohydrate: | 26 mg/9% |
| Dietary Fiber: | 6g/24% |
| Sugars: | 16g |
| Protein: | 1g |
| Vitamin A: | 0% |
| Vitamin C: | 10% |
| Calcium: | 2% |
| Iron: | 0% |
Pears are less allergenic than many other fruits, and pear juice is therefore sometimes used as the first juice introduced to infants.[15] However, caution is recommended for all fruit juice consumption by infants as studies have suggested a link between excessive fruit juice consumption and reduced nutrient intake as well as a tendency towards obesity.[16] Pears are low in salicylates and benzoates and are therefore recommended in exclusion diets for allergy sufferers.[17] Along with lamb and rice, pears may form part of the strictest exclusion diet for allergy sufferers[18]
Pears can be useful in treating inflammation of mucous membranes, colitis, chronic gallbladder disorders, arthritis, and gout. Pears can also be beneficial in lowering high blood pressure, controlling blood cholesterol levels, and increasing urine acidity.
In ancient Greece, pears were used to treat nausea.
Most of the fiber is insoluble, making pears a good laxative. The gritty fiber content may cut down on the number of cancerous colon polyps. Most of the vitamin C, as well as the dietary fiber, is contained within the skin of the fruit.[19]
See also
References
- ^ a b Potter, D.; et al. (2007). "Phylogeny and classification of Rosaceae". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 266 (1–2): 5–43. doi:10.1007/s00606-007-0539-9.
{{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=(help) - ^ Sally Grainger; Christopher Grocock (2006). Apicius (with an introd. and an Engl. transl.) (Critical ed.). Blackawton, Totnes: Prospect Books. p. IV.2.35. ISBN 978-1-903018-13-2.
- ^ Evelyn Cecil (July 2006). A History of Gardening in England. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 35 ff. ISBN 978-1-4286-3680-4. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ^ http://www.bouquetoffruits.com/fruit-facts/pear-facts.html [dead link]
- ^ Pear Varieties. usapears.com. Retrieved on 2011-04-12.
- ^ Fedriani, JM and Delibes, M. 2009. "Seed dispersal in the Iberian pear, Pyrus bourgaeana: A role for infrequent mutualists." Ecoscience 16: 311-321.
- ^ a b c Canadian Produce Marketing Association > Home Storage Guide for Fresh Fruits & Vegetables Retrieved August 2010
- ^ Judy Scott; David Sugar (2011 [last update]). "Pears can be ripened to perfection". extension.oregonstate.edu. Retrieved August 30, 2011.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|year=(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Dutch stewed pears. Davesgarden.com. Retrieved on 2011-04-12.
- ^ Lincoln, William (1986). World Woods in Color. Fresno, California, USA: Linden Publishing Co. Inc.. pp. 33, 207. ISBN 0-941936-20-1.
- ^ Info Tabac: histoire du tabac, accessed 3 June 2010. Template:Fr icon
- ^ Bertrand Dautzenberg (no date). Epidémiologie des maladies liées au tabac, accessed 3 June 2010. Template:Fr icon
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 2024-05-09. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
- ^ "The wonder of pears". FreeDiets.
- ^ Patricia Queen Samour; Kathy King Helm; Carol E. Lang (1999). Handbook of Pediatric Nutrition. Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 89–. ISBN 978-0-7637-3305-6. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ^ Gibson, AR; Clancy, RL (1978). "An Australian exclusion diet" (PDF). The Medical Journal of Australia. 1 (5): 290–292. PMID 661687.
- ^ A. Morris 2008 A Guide to Suspected Food Allergy, Surrey Allergy Clinic, U. K.
- ^ Phyllis A. Balch (13 May 2003). Prescription for Dietary Wellness. Penguin. pp. 67–. ISBN 978-1-58333-147-7. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
External links
- California Pear Recipes – Over one hundred pear recipes from California Pears.
- European pear varieties – description of Australian commercial pears
- Fruit in mythology – Symbolism of pears
- Handbook of Practical Gardening – Gardening information on pears.
- "The Pear in History, Literature, Popular Culture, and Art"
- Pear Panache – a collection of pear recipes for chefs and by chefs
- Pear Recipes – collection of pear recipes from Pear Bureau Northwest
- Pear Varieties – Information about pear varieties grown in California.
- University of Georgia Pear Page – History of cultivation and commerce.
- USA Pears – descriptions of pear varieties from a U.S. advocacy group.
- Wild Pear, Pyrus pyraster – Diagnostic photos, Morton Arboretum specimens
| Cultivars |  | |
|---|---|---|
| Species | ||
| Natural hybrids | ||
| Related topics | ||
