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In Judaism, God is called "Father" with a unique sense of familiarity. In addition to the sense in which God is "Father" to all men because he created the world (and in that sense "fathered" the world), the same God is also uniquely the [[patriarch]]al law-giver to the [[chosen people]]. He maintains a special, [[covenant (Biblical)|covenantal]] father-child relationship with the people, giving them the [[Shabbat]], stewardship of his [[oracles]], and a unique heritage in the things of God, calling Israel "my son" because he delivered the descendants of Jacob out of slavery in Egypt{{Bibleref2c|Hosea|11:1|47}} according to his oath to their father, [[Abraham]]. In the Hebrew Scriptures, in Isaiah 63:16 (ASV) it reads: "Thou, O Jehovah, art our Father; our Redeemer from everlasting is thy name." To God, according to Judaism, is attributed the fatherly role of protector. He is called the Father of the poor, of the orphan and the widow, their guarantor of justice. He is also called the Father of the king, as the teacher and helper over the judge of Israel.<ref>Marianne Meye Thompson ''The promise of the Father: Jesus and God in the New Testament'' ch.2 God as Father in the Old Testament and Second Temple Judaism p35 2000 "Christian theologians have often accentuated the distinctiveness of the portrait of God as Father in the New Testament on the basis of an alleged discontinuity"</ref>
In Judaism, God is called "Father" with a unique sense of familiarity. In addition to the sense in which God is "Father" to all men because he created the world (and in that sense "fathered" the world), the same God is also uniquely the [[patriarch]]al law-giver to the [[chosen people]]. He maintains a special, [[covenant (Biblical)|covenantal]] father-child relationship with the people, giving them the [[Shabbat]], stewardship of his [[oracles]], and a unique heritage in the things of God, calling Israel "my son" because he delivered the descendants of Jacob out of slavery in Egypt{{Bibleref2c|Hosea|11:1|47}} according to his oath to their father, [[Abraham]]. In the Hebrew Scriptures, in Isaiah 63:16 (ASV) it reads: "Thou, O Jehovah, art our Father; our Redeemer from everlasting is thy name." To God, according to Judaism, is attributed the fatherly role of protector. He is called the Father of the poor, of the orphan and the widow, their guarantor of justice. He is also called the Father of the king, as the teacher and helper over the judge of Israel.<ref>Marianne Meye Thompson ''The promise of the Father: Jesus and God in the New Testament'' ch.2 God as Father in the Old Testament and Second Temple Judaism p35 2000 "Christian theologians have often accentuated the distinctiveness of the portrait of God as Father in the New Testament on the basis of an alleged discontinuity"</ref>


However, in Juadism "Father" is always a [[metaphor]]; it is not a proper name for God but rather one of many metaphors by which Jews speak of and to God. In Christianity fatherhood is taken in a literal and substantive sense, and is explicit about the need for the Son as a means of accessing the Father, making for a [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] rather than metaphorical interpretation<ref name=metaphor>[http://www.elijah-interfaith.org/uploads/media/god_the_father_in_rabbinic_judaism_and_christianity_01.pdf God the Father in Rabbinic Judaism and Christianity: Transformed Background or Common Ground?, Alon Goshen-Gottstein. The Elijah Interfaith Institute, first published in Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 38:4, Spring 2001]</ref>.
However, in Judaism "Father" is always a [[metaphor]]; it is not a proper name for God but rather one of many metaphors by which Jews speak of and to God. In Christianity fatherhood is taken in a literal and substantive sense, and is explicit about the need for the Son as a means of accessing the Father, making for a [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] rather than metaphorical interpretation<ref name=metaphor>[http://www.elijah-interfaith.org/uploads/media/god_the_father_in_rabbinic_judaism_and_christianity_01.pdf God the Father in Rabbinic Judaism and Christianity: Transformed Background or Common Ground?, Alon Goshen-Gottstein. The Elijah Interfaith Institute, first published in Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 38:4, Spring 2001]</ref>.


==Christianity in general{{Anchor|Christianity}}==
==Christianity in general{{Anchor|Christianity}}==

Revision as of 04:00, 20 July 2012

For the recurring theme in mythology, see Sky father.
God the Father by Cima da Conegliano, c. 1515

God the Father is a paternal title given to God in the related patriarchal, Abrahamic religions of Judaism and Christianity.

In Judaism, God is called Father as he is said to be the creator, life-giver, law-giver, and protector.[1] In traditional Christianity God is called Father for the same reasons, and also as the father of Jesus.[2] According to most Christian churches, the title "God the Father" refers to the first Person of the Trinity. This doctrine holds that God, although single, is made up of three "persons", the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. A god or gods are also considered to be fathers in other religions

In general, the title Father (with capital "F") signifies God's role as the life-giver, the authority, and powerful protector, often viewed as immense, omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent with infinite power and charity that goes beyond human understanding.[3] For instance, after completing his monumental work Summa Theologica, St. Thomas Aquinas concluded that he had not yet begun to understand God the Father.[4]

Gender of God

Main article: Gender of God
An image of God the Father by Julius Schnorr, 1860.

Masculine characteristics are often ascribed to God, in the Scriptures and traditions of many monotheists. In the Bible, God is directly addressed and referred to with the masculine term "Father", in both the Old Testament or Hebrew Bible, and the Christian New Testament.

God is also usually defined as being a spirit, and thus having no human biological gender. For instance, the Catechism of the Catholic Church #239 specifically states that "God is neither man nor woman: he is God".[5][6] Yet, God is thought of as dominant, powerful, fatherly, masculine, passionate, whose ways are too high for his children (i.e. humanity) to understand.[7] God is traditionally referred to by the gender-neutral pronoun he (often capitalized; He).

Feminine imagery for God is also found in the Bible. Even though God is never directly addressed as "Mother", he at times is compared to and likened to a Mother. A woman in labor;Isa 42:14 a mother who does not forget the child she nurses;Isa 49:14–15 a mother who comforts her children;Isa 66:12–13 a mother who births and protects Israel;Isa 46:3–4 a mother who gave birth to the Israelites;Dt 32:18[8] Other maternal references: Ps 131:2; Job 38:8,29.[9]

Monotheism

In modern monotheist religious traditions, such as Christianity, Judaism, Bahá'í, Krishnaism, Vaishnavism and the Brahma Kumaris religion, God is addressed as the father, in part because of his active interest in human affairs, in the way that a father would take an interest in his children who are dependent on him and as a father, he will respond to humanity, his children, acting in their best interests.[10] Many monotheists believe they can communicate with him through prayer, and improve their relationship with him.[11] At times, it is also expected that God may discipline those who err like a father punishes his children, e.g. as stated in the New Testament: "Endure hardship as discipline; God is treating you as sons. For what son is not disciplined by his father? If you are not disciplined (and everyone undergoes discipline), then you are illegitimate children and not true sons."Heb. 12:8

Judaism

Menorah
Main article: God in Judaism

In Judaism, God is called "Father" with a unique sense of familiarity. In addition to the sense in which God is "Father" to all men because he created the world (and in that sense "fathered" the world), the same God is also uniquely the patriarchal law-giver to the chosen people. He maintains a special, covenantal father-child relationship with the people, giving them the Shabbat, stewardship of his oracles, and a unique heritage in the things of God, calling Israel "my son" because he delivered the descendants of Jacob out of slavery in EgyptHosea 11:1 according to his oath to their father, Abraham. In the Hebrew Scriptures, in Isaiah 63:16 (ASV) it reads: "Thou, O Jehovah, art our Father; our Redeemer from everlasting is thy name." To God, according to Judaism, is attributed the fatherly role of protector. He is called the Father of the poor, of the orphan and the widow, their guarantor of justice. He is also called the Father of the king, as the teacher and helper over the judge of Israel.[12]

However, in Judaism "Father" is always a metaphor; it is not a proper name for God but rather one of many metaphors by which Jews speak of and to God. In Christianity fatherhood is taken in a literal and substantive sense, and is explicit about the need for the Son as a means of accessing the Father, making for a metaphysical rather than metaphorical interpretation[13].

Christianity in general

Main article: God in Christianity
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In Christianity, God is called "Father" in a more literal sense than other religions, besides being the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children in general (humanity).Heb 1:2–5 Gal 4:1–7 The Father is said to have an eternal or special relation to his only begotten Son, Jesus Christ, which implies an exclusive and intimate familiarity: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to reveal him."Mt. 11:27 In Christian theology, this is the revelation of a sense in which fatherhood is inherent to God's nature, an eternal relationship.cf. Jn 17 In the New Testament, God is called "Father" 245 times.

In the third century, Tertullian claimed that God exists as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—with the Father being the Head.[14][page needed] To trinitarian Christians (which include Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and most but not all Protestant denominations), God the Father is not at all a separate god from God the Son (of whom Jesus is the incarnation) and the Holy Spirit, the other Hypostases of the Christian Godhead.[14]

According to the Nicene Creed, the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is seen as not tied to an event within time or human history. See Christology.

To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is as a father to children. Thus, humans in general are sometimes called children of God. To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of Creator and created beings, and in that respect he is the "Father" or "Life-giver" of all. He is referred to as "your Heavenly Father" by Jesus in the Gospels.Luke 11:13 The New Testament says, in this sense, that the very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name from God the Father,Eph 3:15 and thus God himself is the model of the family.[15]

However, there is a deeper sense in which Christians believe that they are made participants in the eternal relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus Christ. Christians call themselves adopted children of God:

But when the fullness of the time had come, God sent forth His Son, born of a woman, born under the law, to redeem those who were under the law, that we might receive the adoption as sons. And because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts crying out, "Abba, Father!" Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ.

— Galatians 4:4–7

The Gospel of Mark records that Jesus used the term Abba, "Father" when praying to God during his Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane shortly before his crucifixion, saying: "Abba, Father, all things are possible to you; remove this cup from me. Yet not what I want, but what you want."Mk 14:36 Here is the fervent appeal of a son to a beloved father, followed quickly by an assurance that, in any event, he would remain obedient. The New Testament refers six times to God as the "God and Father" of Jesus.

Trinitarian Christians

Roman Catholicism

God the Father, the triangular halo representing the Trinity, Girolamo dai Libri c. 1555.

In Roman Catholic theology, God the Father is the first Person of the Trinity. He is the eternal source of the Son and the Holy Spirit, the one who begets the Son and the one who breaths the Holy Spirit through the Son. The Father is co-equal and co-eternal with the Son and the Holy Spirit, each Person being the one eternal God, who is the creator. Because of this, the Trinity is beyond reason and can only be known by revelation.[16][17][18]

According to Roman Catholic teaching, God the Father begot the Son by an eternal generation, and the Holy Spirit proceeds by an eternal procession from the Father and the Son. Yet, in Roman Catholic theology, notwithstanding this difference as to origin, the Persons are co-eternal and co-equal: all alike are uncreated and omnipotent.[19]

Catholics believe that God the Father is not pantheistic, but that he exists outside of creation, as its Creator. He is viewed as a loving and caring God, a Heavenly Father who is active both in the world and in people's lives.[20] He created all things visible and invisible in love and wisdom,[21] and man for his own sake.[22]

Many lower-ranking clergy are styled with the honorific "Father". The Pope is often referred to as "Holy Father". Early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops are referred to as "fathers of the Church".

Eastern Orthodoxy

God the Father, and the Trinity, Mount Athos, Greece

In Eastern Orthodox theology, God the Father is the "arche" or "principium" (beginning), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit.[14] The Father is considered the eternal source of the Godhead, from Whom the Son is begotten eternally and also from Whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. The essence of God being that which is beyond human comprehension and can not be defined and or approached by human understanding.[23]

The belief is that the pre-existent Son is eternally born from God the Father, and that the Spirit proceeds from the Father—both in the same timeless and eternal action of the Father’s own being.

In this view, the Son and the Spirit are both one with God the Father and in no way separated from Him. Thus, according to Greek Orthodox theology, the Divine Unity consists of God the Father, with His Son and His Spirit distinct from God the Father and yet perfectly united together in Him.[24]

Protestantism

Most Protestant churches and denominations hold to beliefs and theology regarding God the Father similar to that of Roman Catholicism. The Trinitarian view of "God the Father", as the First Person of a co-equal, co-eternal, and con-substantial Trinity, is a mark of Roman Catholicism, Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy, and is therefore the general view also of the "mainstream traditions" arising from the Protestant Reformation, such as Anglicanism, Baptist, Methodism, Lutheranism and Presbyterianism. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church describes the Trinity as "the central dogma of Christian theology".[25] However, a precise representative view of Protestant Trinitarian theology regarding "God the Father", etc, is more difficult to provide, given the diverse and less centralized nature of the various Protestant churches.

Nontrinitarian Christians

Jehovah's Witnesses

The Biblical Tetragrammaton, the Hebrew Name for God the Father.
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses

In Jehovah's Witness theology, only God the Father is the one true and almighty God, even over his Son Jesus Christ. While the Witnesses acknowledge Christ's pre-existence, perfection, and unique "Sonship" with God the Father, and believe that Christ had an essential role in creation and redemption, and is the Messiah, they believe that only the Father is without beginning. They say that the Son had a beginning, and was "brought forth" at a certain point, as the Father's First and Only-begotten, and as the Father's only direct creation, before all ages.[26]

Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize God the Father, in their services, studies, and worship, more than Christ the Son. In their theology, they teach that the Father is greater than the Son.[27][28] The Witnesses, though they do give relative "worship" or "obeisance" (Greek: proskyneo) to Jesus as God's Son and Messiah, and pray through Him as Mediator, do not give him the same degree of worship or service as they give to God the Father.[29][30]

Oneness Pentecostalism

Main article: Oneness Pentecostalism

God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are one and the same person, but just different faces, manifestations, or roles played by the one God,[31] in varying circumstances in history, according to Oneness theology. These titles (as well as others) do not reflect separate "persons" within the Godhead, but rather different ways in which the one God reveals himself to his creatures. Oneness Pentecostals believe that the title "God the Father" signifies God's role or manifestation as "Creator" and "Protector" in history.[32]

Oneness theologians teach that the "Holy Spirit" is another name for God the Father. Thus, the Old Testament speaks of "The Lord God and his Spirit" in Isaiah 48:16, but this does not indicate two "persons" according to Oneness theology. Rather, "The Lord" indicates God in all of His glory and transcendence, while "his Spirit" refers to His own Spirit that moved upon and spoke to the prophet. This does not imply two "persons" any more than the numerous scriptural references to a man and his spirit or soul (such as in Luke 12:19) imply two "persons" existing within one body.[33]

Oneness Pentecostals refer to God the Father as the "Spirit" and the Son as the "Flesh". But they believe that Jesus and the Father are one essential Person, though operating as different modes, and that Jesus was "Son" only when he became flesh on earth, but was the Father prior to his being made Man.[32] Oneness theology does not teach that the Father is actually the Son, but rather that the Father (the Spirit) is in the Son (the Flesh) in a special sense (God in Christ). This divinity within Jesus was also the Holy Spirit, as the Father and Holy Spirit are one and the same. According to Oneness theology the terms "LORD" and "Jesus" refer to the same God, who is also known as Jehovah to some modern-day Christians.[citation needed]

Binitarianism

According to the theology of many denominations within the Sabbatarian tradition, such as the Living Church of God and the Philadelphia Church of God, etc, Armstrongism teaches that God the Father and the Logos are co-equal and co-eternal, but that the Holy Spirit is not an actual person. Mainstream Christians characterise this teaching as the heresy of Binitarianism, the teaching that God is a "Duality", or "two-in-one", rather than three. Armstrong theology holds that God is a "Family", with God the Father as the ranking Head, and the Logos co-existing with him, but that this "God-Family" expands eventually. They hold that there was originally a co-eternal "Duality", the Father and the Word, rather than a "Trinity".[34]

Unitarianism

The Unitarian Christian Association teaches that God the Father is the only true God with no equals, and is only one person. As its name suggests, the UCA exists primarily to preserve and extoll Unitarian Christianity, believing in God's absolute oneness, with no divisions or modes.[35]

The Unitarian Christian tradition is founded on a theological position (originally espoused by Michael Servetus and Francis David, but more in line with Socinus) that dissents from the doctrine of the Trinity, instead affirming the absolute uni-personality of God, and placing emphasis on the humanity of Jesus. According to Unitarian Christian theology, Jesus was the Son of God the Father, in a strict human sense. They teach that Jesus was sinless, being that God was his true "father", through Mary. But they teach that God Himself is just one person. This strict monotheism is arguably more akin to Islamic and Jewish positions than the positions of larger Christian groups such as the Roman Catholic Church - and as a result, they may be regarded by some fellow Christians as 'unorthodox' or 'heretical'.[36]

Mormonism

Mormon depiction of God the Father and the Son Jesus.
Main article: God in Mormonism

In Mormonism, the most prominent conception of God is as a divine council of three distinct beings: Elohim (the Father), Jehovah (the Son, or Jesus), and the Holy Spirit. The Father and Son are considered to have perfected, material bodies, while the Holy Spirit has a body of spirit.[37] Mormons believe that God the Father presides over both the Son and Holy Spirit, but together they represent one God.

They officially consider the Godhead a Divine Council, the Father being over the Son and Spirit in time and power. This conception differs from the traditional Christian Trinity of co-equal and co-eternal members; in Mormonism, the three persons are considered worthy to be members of godhood by being united in will and purpose.[38] Mormons often refer to this Council as the "Godhead" to distinguish it from the traditional Trinity.[39] As such, the term Godhead has a different meaning than the term as used in traditional Christianity.[40]

Islam

Main articles: God in Islam and Shirk (Islam)

God, as referenced in the Qur'an, is the only God and the same God worshiped by members of the other Abrahamic religions, Christianity and Judaism. (29:46).[41] However, although God in Islam is creator and life-giver, and unique, Islam rejects the concept "father" in reference to God, particularly in regard to his relationship to the prophet Isa, i.e. Jesus in Islam.[42]

The Qur'an states:[43]

"Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." (Sura 112:1-4, Yusuf Ali)

In Islamic theology, God (Arabic: Allāh) is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer, and judge of the universe.[44][45] Islam puts a heavy emphasis on the conceptualization of God as strictly singular (tawhid).[46] God is unique (wahid) and inherently One (ahad), all-merciful and omnipotent.[47] The Qur'an asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique and indivisible being who is independent of the entire creation.[43]

Other religions

Although some forms of Hinduism support monotheism, there is no concept of a god as a father in Hinduism. A genderless Brahman is considered the Creator and Life-giver, and the Shakta Goddess is viewed as the divine mother and life-bearer.[48][49]

God the Father in Western art

Main article: God the Father in Western art
Depiction of God the Father (detail) offering the right hand throne to Christ, Pieter de Grebber, 1654.

For about a thousand years, no attempt was made to portray God the Father in human form, because early Christians believed that the words of Exodus 33:20 "Thou canst not see my face: for there shall no man see Me and live" and of the Gospel of John 1:18: "No man hath seen God at any time" were meant to apply not only to the Father, but to all attempts at the depiction of the Father. Depictions of the Hand of God are seen in the 3rd century Dura-Europos synagogue and soon appear in Early Christian art. In the early medieval period God was often represented by Christ as the Logos, which continued to be very common even after the separate figure of God the Father appeared. Western art eventually required some way to illustrate the presence of the Father, so through successive representations a set of artistic styles for the depiction of the Father in human form gradually emerged around the tenth century AD.[50]

By the twelfth century depictions of a figure of God, essentially based on the Ancient of Days in the Book of Daniel had started to appear in French manuscripts and in stained glass church windows in England. In the 14th century the illustrated Naples Bible had a depiction of God the Father in the Burning bush. By the 15th century, the Rohan Book of Hours included depictions of God the Father in human form. The depiction remains rare and often controversial in Eastern Orthodox art.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to God the Father.

References

  1. ^ Gerald J. Blidstein, 2006 Honor thy father and mother: filial responsibility in Jewish law and ethics ISBN 0-88125-862-8 page 1
  2. ^ Thomas Weinandy, Jesus the Christ OSV Press ISBN 1-931709-68-8 page 41
  3. ^ Lawrence Kimbrough, 2006 Contemplating God the Father B&H Publishing ISBN 0-8054-4083-6 page 3
  4. ^ Thomas W. Petrisko, 2001 The Kingdom of Our Father St. Andrew's Press ISBN 1-891903-18-7 page 8
  5. ^ David Bordwell, 2002, Catechism of the Catholic Church,Continuum International Publishing ISBN 978-0-86012-324-8 page 84
  6. ^ Vatican website
  7. ^ Peck, Richard (May June), The Gender of God, retrieved 14 August 2009 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
  8. ^ The Jerusalem Bible translation ("fathered you") obscures the feminine action of the verb, more accurately rendered "gave you birth":
    JB: You forget the Rock who begot you, unmindful now of the God who fathered you.
    NRSV: You were unmindful of the Rock that bore you; you forgot the God who gave you birth.
    The Hebrew word in the first line can be translated as either "begot" (male activity) or "bore" (female activity); the context must provide the key. The word in the second line can only refer to female activity. Scholars have taken these two lines either as a male and a female image of God back-to-back, or they take both of them as female, due to the way this verse is located in the overall poetic structure of Deuteronomy 32.
  9. ^ Houts, Margo G. "Feminine Images for God: What Does the Bible Say?" Professor of Religion and Theology, Calvin University. Web: 14 Apr 2010. <http://clubs.calvin.edu/chimes/970418/o1041897.htm Feminine Images for God>
  10. ^ Diana L. Eck (2003) Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. p. 98
  11. ^ Floyd H. Barackman, 2002 Practical Christian Theology ISBN 0-8254-2380-5 page 117
  12. ^ Marianne Meye Thompson The promise of the Father: Jesus and God in the New Testament ch.2 God as Father in the Old Testament and Second Temple Judaism p35 2000 "Christian theologians have often accentuated the distinctiveness of the portrait of God as Father in the New Testament on the basis of an alleged discontinuity"
  13. ^ God the Father in Rabbinic Judaism and Christianity: Transformed Background or Common Ground?, Alon Goshen-Gottstein. The Elijah Interfaith Institute, first published in Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 38:4, Spring 2001
  14. ^ a b c Critical Terms for Religious Studies. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998. Credo Reference. 27 July 2009
  15. ^ Ephesians 3:15 - Clarke's Commentary on Ephesians 3:15 - Retrieved 13 April 2012.
  16. ^ http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p2.htm#242
  17. ^ http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p2.htm#245
  18. ^ http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p2.htm#237
  19. ^ The dogma of the Trinity - Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
  20. ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 7
  21. ^ http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p4.htm#295
  22. ^ http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p6.htm#356
  23. ^ Lossky, V. The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
  24. ^ One God, One Father - The Orthodox Church in America. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
  25. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press, 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Trinity, doctrine of the
  26. ^ Insight on the Scriptures. Vol. 2. 1988. p. 1019.
  27. ^ Revelation Its Grand Climax, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, pg 36, "In the songbook produced by Jehovah’s people in 1905, there were twice as many songs praising Jesus as there were songs praising Jehovah God. In their 1928 songbook, the number of songs extolling Jesus was about the same as the number extolling Jehovah. But in the latest songbook of 1984, Jehovah is honored by four times as many songs as is Jesus. This is in harmony with Jesus’ own words: 'The Father is greater than I am.' Love for Jehovah must be preeminent, accompanied by deep love for Jesus and appreciation of his precious sacrifice and office as God’s High Priest and King."
  28. ^ The Watchtower, April 15, 1983, pg 29, "Why is God’s name, Jehovah, missing from most modern translations of the Bible? Superstition that developed among tradition-bound Jews caused them to avoid pronouncing God’s personal name, Jehovah. This has contributed to worldwide ignorance regarding the divine name. Added to this has been Christendom’s tendency to focus attention on the person of Jesus Christ, thus relegating Jehovah to second place in their triune godhead."
  29. ^ "Should you believe in the Trinity?". The Watchtower. 1989. Retrieved 13 April 2012. Chapter: Is God Always Superior to Jesus?
  30. ^ Watchtower 1984 9/1 p. 25-30.
  31. ^ James Roberts - Oneness vs. Trinitarian Theology - Westland United Pentecostal Church. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
  32. ^ a b See also David Bernard, A Handbook of Basic Doctrines, Word Aflame Press, 1988. ISBN 0-932581-37-4 Cite error: The named reference "basic.doctrine.list.father.is.holy.ghost" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  33. ^ See under heading "The Father is the Holy Ghost" in David Bernard, The Oneness of God, Chapter 6.
  34. ^ Who and What Is God? - Mystery of the Ages - Herbert W. Armstrong. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
  35. ^ See "Affiliated Societies" British Unitarians homepage, http://www.unitarian.org.uk/movementc.htm
  36. ^ See "Report on the UCA’s Autumn Synod" The Herald, Winter 2006, http://www.unitarianchristian.org.uk/13.html
  37. ^ "Godhead", True to the Faith, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2004. See also: "God the Father", True to the Faith, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2004.
  38. ^ Robinson, Stephen E. (1992), "God the Father: Overview", in Ludlow, Daniel H. (ed.), [[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]], New York: Mcmillan, pp. 548–550, ISBN 0-02-904040-X {{citation}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  39. ^ Dahl, Paul E. (1992), "Godhead", in Ludlow, Daniel H. (ed.), [[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]], New York: Mcmillan, pp. 552–553, ISBN 0-02-904040-X {{citation}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  40. ^ The term with its distinctive Mormon usage first appeared in Lectures on Faith (published 1834), Lecture 5 ("We shall in this lecture speak of the Godhead; we mean the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit."). The term Godhead also appears several times in Lecture 2 in its sense as used in the Authorized King James Version as meaning divinity.
  41. ^ F.E. Peters, Islam, p.4, Princeton University Press, 2003
  42. ^ The Concept of Monotheism in Islam and Christianity by Hans Köchler 1982 ISBN 3-7003-0339-4 page 38
  43. ^ a b Vincent J. Cornell, Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol 5, pp.3561-3562
  44. ^ Gerhard Böwering, God and his Attributes, Encyclopedia of the Quran
  45. ^ John L. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, Oxford University Press, 1998, p.22
  46. ^ John L. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, Oxford University Press, 1998, p.88
  47. ^ "Allah." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica
  48. ^ Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology Set by C. Scott Littleton 2005 ISBN 0-7614-7559-1 page 908
  49. ^ Fundamentals of the Faith by Peter Kreeft 1988 ISBN 0-89870-202-X page 93
  50. ^ James Cornwell, 2009 Saints, Signs, and Symbols: The Symbolic Language of Christian Art ISBN 0-8192-2345-X page 2

Bibliography

  • Roger E. Olson, The Story of Christian Theology : Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1999)

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