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==Etymology==
==Etymology==
The name ''pangolin'' comes from the [[Malay language|Malay]] word '''Pengguling''', meaning "one who rolls up".<ref name=COED>{{cite book |editor= Judy Pearsall | year=2002 |title= Concise Oxford English Dictionary | edition = 10th | publisher= Oxford University Press | page= 1030 |isbn= 0-19-860572-2}}</ref> However, the modern name in [[Malay language|Standard Malay]] is '''Tenggiling''', whereas in [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] it is '''Trenggiling'''.
The name "pangolin" comes from the [[Malay language|Malay]] word ''pengguling'', meaning "one who rolls up".<ref name=COED>{{cite book |editor= Judy Pearsall | year=2002 |title= Concise Oxford English Dictionary | edition = 10th | publisher= Oxford University Press | page= 1030 |isbn= 0-19-860572-2}}</ref> However, the modern name in [[Malay language|Standard Malay]] is "tenggiling", whereas in [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] it is "trenggiling".


==Description==
==Description==

Revision as of 02:30, 31 October 2017

"Pholidota" redirects here. For the orchid, see Pholidota (plant).

Pangolin
Temporal range: Paleocene–Present
Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Pholidota
Suborder: Eupholidota
Superfamily: Manoidea
Weber, 1904
Family: Manidae
Gray, 1821
Genera
Species ranges
  Manis crassicaudata
  Manis pentadactyla
  Manis javanica
  Manis culionensis
  Phataginus tricuspis
  Phataginus tetradactyla
  Smutsia gigantea
  Smutsia temminckii

Pangolins are mammals of the order Pholidota. The one extant family, Manidae, has three genera: Manis, which comprises four species living in Asia; Phataginus, which comprises two species living in Africa; and Smutsia, which comprises two species also living in Africa.[1] These species range in size from 30 to 100 cm (12 to 39 in). A number of extinct pangolin species are also known.

Pangolins have large, protective keratin scales covering their skin, and they are the only known mammals with this feature. They live in hollow trees or burrows, depending on the species. Pangolins are nocturnal, and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites which they capture using their long tongues. They tend to be solitary animals, meeting only to mate and produce a litter of one to three offspring which are raised for about two years. Pangolins are threatened by hunting (for their meat and scales) and heavy deforestation of their natural habitats, and are the most trafficked mammals in the world.[2] Of the eight species of pangolin, four (Phataginus tetradactyla, P. tricuspis, Smutsia gigantea, and S. temminckii) are listed as vulnerable, two (Manis crassicaudata and M. culionensis) are listed as endangered, and two (M. pentadactyla and M. javanica) are listed as critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species.[3]

Etymology

The name "pangolin" comes from the Malay word pengguling, meaning "one who rolls up".[4] However, the modern name in Standard Malay is "tenggiling", whereas in Indonesian it is "trenggiling".

Description

Pangolin skeletons

The physical appearance of a pangolin is marked by large, hardened, overlapping plate-like scales, which are soft on newborn pangolins, but harden as the animal matures.[5] They are made of keratin, the same material of which human fingernails and tetrapod claws are made. The pangolin's scaled body is comparable to a pine cone or globe artichoke. It can curl up into a ball when threatened, with its overlapping scales acting as armor, while it protects its face by tucking it under its tail. The scales are sharp, providing extra defense from predators.[6]

Pangolins can also emit a noxious-smelling chemical from glands near the anus, similar to the spray of a skunk.[7] They have short legs, with sharp claws which they use for burrowing into termite and ant mounds, as well as climbing.[8]

The tongues of pangolins are extremely long like those of the giant anteater and the tube-lipped nectar bat; the root of the tongue is not attached to their hyoid bone, but is located in the thorax[9] between the sternum and the trachea. Large pangolins can extend their tongues as much as 40 cm (16 in), with a diameter of only 0.5 cm (0.20 in).[10]

Behavior

Most pangolins are nocturnal animals that use their well-developed sense of smell to find insects. The long-tailed pangolin is also active by day, while other species of pangolins spend most of the daytime sleeping, curled up into a ball.[10]

Arboreal pangolins live in hollow trees, whereas the ground-dwelling species dig tunnels underground, to a depth of 3.5 m (11 ft).[10]

Some pangolins walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad, although they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs. Furthermore, some exhibit a bipedal stance for some behaviors and may walk a few steps bipedally.[11] Pangolins are also good swimmers.[10]

Diet

Indian pangolin defending itself against Asiatic lions

Pangolins are insectivorous. Most of their diet consists of various species of ants and termites and may be supplemented by other insects, especially larvae. They are somewhat particular and tend to consume only one or two species of insects, even when many species are available to them. A pangolin can consume 140 to 200 g (4.9 to 7.1 oz) of insects per day.[12]

Pangolins have a very poor sense of vision, so they rely heavily on smell and hearing. They use their powerful front claws to dig into trees, ground, and vegetation to find prey,[13] then proceed to use their long tongues to probe inside the insect tunnels and retrieve their prey. Pangolins lack teeth, so also lack the ability to chew;[14] however, while foraging, they ingest small stones which accumulate in their stomachs to help to grind up ants.[15]

Some species, such as the tree pangolin, use their strong, prehensile tails to hang from tree branches and strip away bark from the trunk, exposing insect nests inside.[16]

Reproduction

Pangolins are solitary and meet only to mate. Males are larger than females, weighing up to 40% more. While mating season is defined, they typically mate once each year, usually during the summer or autumn. Rather than the males seeking out the females, males mark their location with urine or feces and the females will find them. If there is competition over a female, the males will use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her.[17]

Gestation periods differ by species, ranging from roughly 70 to 140 days.[18] African pangolin females usually give birth to a single offspring at a time, but the Asiatic species may give birth from one to three.[10] Weight at birth is 80 to 450 g (2.8 to 15.9 oz) and the average length is 150 mm (5.9 in). At the time of birth, the scales are soft and white. After several days, they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin. During the vulnerable stage, the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow, nursing it, and wraps her body around it if she senses danger. The young cling to the mother's tail as she moves about, although in burrowing species, they remain in the burrow for the first two to four weeks of life. At one month, they first leave the burrow riding on the mother's back. Weaning takes place around three months of age, at which stage the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing. At two years of age, the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother.[19]

Threats

See also: Pangolin trade
A coat of armor made of gilded pangolin scales from India, an unusual object, was presented to George III in 1820.

Pangolins are hunted and eaten in many parts of Africa and are one of the more popular types of bush meat, while local healers use the pangolin as a source of traditional medicine.[20] They are also in great demand in southern China and Vietnam because their meat is considered a delicacy and some believe that pangolin scales have medicinal qualities.[21][22][23][24] Over the past decade, over one million pangolins are believed to have been illegally trafficked, making it the most trafficked animal in the world.[25] This, coupled with deforestation, has led to a large decrease in the numbers of pangolins. Some species, such as Manis pentadactyla have become commercially extinct in certain ranges as a result of overhunting.[26] In November 2010, pangolins were added to the Zoological Society of London's list of genetically distinct and endangered mammals.[27] All eight species of pangolin are classified by the IUCN as threatened with extinction, while two are classified as critically endangered.[22][28]

Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade, populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to unfounded beliefs in East Asia that their ground-up scales can stimulate lactation or cure cancer or asthma.[29] In the past decade, numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia.[30][31][32][33] In one such incident in April 2013, 10,000 kg (11 short tons) of pangolin meat were seized from a Chinese vessel that ran aground in the Philippines.[34][35] In another case in August 2016, an Indonesian man was arrested after police raided his home and found over 650 pangolins in freezers on his property.[36] The same threat is reported in many countries in Africa, especially Nigeria, where the animal is on the verge of extinction due to over exploitation.[37]

Conservation

As a result of increasing threats to pangolins, mainly in the form of illegal, international trade in pangolin skin, scales, and meat, these species have received increasing conservation attention in recent years. For example, in 2014, the IUCN recategorised all eight species of pangolin on its Red List of Threatened Species, and each species is now properly listed as being threatened with extinction.[38] Also, the IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins, dubbed Scaling up Pangolin Conservation in July 2014. This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation with an added emphasis on combating poaching and trafficking of the animal, while educating communities in its importance.[25]

Many attempts have been made to reproduce pangolins in captivity, but due to their reliance on wide-ranging habitats and very particular diets, these attempts are often unsuccessful.[18] They are susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia and the development of ulcers in captivity, complications which can lead to an early death.[18] In addition, pangolins rescued from illegal trade often have a higher chance of being infected with parasites such as intestinal worms, further lessening their chance for rehabilitation and reintroduction to the wild.[18] Recently, researchers have been able to improve artificial pangolin habitats to allow for reproduction of pangolins, providing some hope for future reintroduction of these species into their natural habitats.[5]

Taxonomy

Chinese pangolin

Pangolins were formerly[when?] classified with various other orders, for example Xenarthra, which includes the ordinary anteaters, sloths, and the similar-looking armadillos. Newer genetic evidence, however, indicates their closest living relatives are the Carnivora with which they form the clade Ferae.[39][40] Some palaeontologists, placing Ernanodonta in a separate suborder of Cimolesta near Pholidota,[41] have classified the pangolins in the order Cimolesta, together with several extinct groups indicated (†) below, though this idea has fallen out of favor since cimolestids have been determined to have not been placental mammals.[42] A 2015 study has supported close affinities between pangolins and the extinct groups Creodonta, Oxyaenidae and Hyaenodonta.[43]

Until recently, all species of living pangolin had been assigned to the genus Manis. Recent research has supported the splitting of extant pangolins into three genera: Manis, Phataginus, and Smutsia.[1][44]

Template:Laurasiatheria Cladogram

Ground pangolin in defensive posture

References

  1. ^ a b c d Gaudin, Timothy (28 August 2009). "The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis" (PDF). Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 16 (4): 235–305. doi:10.1007/s10914-009-9119-9. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
  2. ^ Goode, Emilia (31 March 2015). "A Struggle to Save the Scaly Pangolin". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
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  6. ^ Wang, Bin (2016). "Pangolin armor: Overlapping, structure, and mechanical properties of the keratinous scales". Acta Biomaterialia. 41: 60–74. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2016.05.028. PMID 27221793.
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  10. ^ a b c d e Mondadori, Arnoldo, ed. (1988). Great Book of the Animal Kingdom. New York: Arch Cape Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0517667910.
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  22. ^ a b "Manis javanica". IUCN Red List. 2014. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Actman, Jani (20 December 2015). "Crime Blotter: Pangolin Scales, Tiger Skins, and More". National Geographic. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
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  26. ^ "Manis pentadactyla (Chinese Pangolin)". www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
  27. ^ Agence France-Presse (November 19, 2010). "'Asian unicorn' and scaly anteater make endangered list". The Sydney Morning Herald.
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  29. ^ Wassener, Bettina (12 March 2013). "No Species Is Safe From Burgeoning Wildlife Trade". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
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  32. ^ Watts, Jonathan (25 May 2007). "'Noah's Ark' of 5,000 rare animals found floating off the coast of China". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 3 October 2014. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
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  34. ^ Carrington, Damian (15 April 2013). "Chinese vessel on Philippine coral reef caught with illegal pangolin meat". Associated Press. London. Archived from the original on 2013-04-17. Retrieved 16 April 2013. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Molland, Judy (16 April 2013). "Boat Filled With 22,000 Pounds Of Pangolin Hits Endangered Coral Reef". London: Care2. Archived from the original on 2013-04-17. Retrieved 17 April 2013. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ "Indonesian man arrested as 650 pangolins found dead in freezers - BBC News". Retrieved 2016-08-27.
  37. ^ The Daily Trust, Saturday 18 February 2017
  38. ^ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". iucnredlist.org. Retrieved 2015-10-17.
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  41. ^ For example, McKenna & Bell 1997, p. 222 in which they included palaeanodonts. (Rose 2006, p. 210)
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  45. ^ Mikko's Phylogeny Archive [1] Haaramo, Mikko (2007). "Manidae– Recent pangolin". Retrieved 30 December 2015.
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  47. ^ "Palaeanodonta". fossilworks.org. Paleobiology Database. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
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