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Palladian architecture

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A villa with a superimposed portico, from Book IV of Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura, in an English translation published in London, 1736
Plan for Palladio's Villa Rotonda (c. 1565) – features of the house were incorporated in numerous Palladian style houses throughout Europe over the following centuries.

Palladian architecture is a European architectural style derived from the designs of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). What is today recognised as Palladian architecture evolved from his concepts of symmetry, perspective and the principles of formal classical temple architecture from the Ancient Greeks and Roman traditions. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Palladio's interpretation of this classical architecture developed into the style known as Palladianism.

Palladianism flowered briefly in England in the early 17th century, led by the court architect Inigo Jones, but its development was halted by the onset of the English Civil War. After the Stuart Restoration, the architectural landscape was dominated by the proponents of the more flamboyant English Baroque. Reaction set in from the early 18th century, and Palladianism returned to fashion; firstly in England, due to the publication of a number of influential architectural books, and under the leadership of Lord Burlington; and subsequently in Europe. Its adoption in Prussia drew directly on English inspirations. Francesco Algarotti corresponded with Burlington about his efforts to persuade Frederick the Great of the merits of the style, while Knobelsdorff's opera house on the Unter den Linden boulevard, begun in 1741, was based on Colen Campbell's Wanstead House. This immense mansion outside London was one of the first, and among the most influential, of Campbell's Palladian designs.

Later in the century, when the style was falling from favour in Europe, Palladianism had a surge in popularity throughout the British colonies in North America. Thomas Jefferson sought out Palladian examples, which themselves drew on buildings from the time of the Roman Republic, to develop a new architectural style for the fledgling American Republic. Examples include the Hammond-Harwood House in Maryland and Jefferson's own Monticello in Virginia. The Palladian style was also adopted in other British colonies, including those in the Indian subcontinent.

Palladianism was overtaken in popularity by Neoclassical architecture in Europe and North America in the 19th century. By the middle of that century both were challenged and then superseded by the Gothic Revival in the English-speaking world, when champions such as Augustus Pugin, remembering the origins of Palladianism in ancient temples, deemed the style too pagan for true Christian worship. As an architectural style it has continued to evolve; its pediments, symmetry and proportions are evident in the design of many modern buildings, while its inspirer is regularly cited as among the world’s most influential architects.

Palladio's architecture

See also: Palladian Villas of the Veneto and City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto
"True Palladianism" at the Villa Godi (1537–1542) – from Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura. The flanking wings are agricultural buildings not part of the villa. In the 18th century, they evolved as suites of rooms aligned with each others, becoming an important part of Palladianism

Andrea Palladio was born in Padua in 1508, the son of a stonemason.[1] He was inspired by Roman buildings, the writings of Vitruvius (80 BC), and his immediate predecessors Donato Bramante and Raphael.[n 1] Palladio aspired to an architectural style that utilised symmetry and proportion to emulate the grandeur of classical buildings.[3] His surviving buildings are in Venice, Veneto region, and Vicenza,[4] and include villas and churches such as the Basilica del Redentore in Venice.[5] Palladio's architectural treatises follow the approach defined by Vitruvius and his 15th-century disciple Leon Battista Alberti, who adhered to principles of classical Roman architecture based on mathematical proportions rather than the ornamental style of the Renaissance.[6] Palladio recorded and publicised his work in the 1570 four-volume illustrated study, I quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books of Architecture).[7]

Palladio's villas are designed to fit with their setting.[8] If on a hill, such as Villa Almerico Capra Valmarana (Villa Capra, or La Rotonda), façades were of equal value so that occupants could enjoy views in all directions.[9] Porticos were built on all sides to enable the residents to appreciate the countryside while remaining protected from the sun.[10][n 2] Palladio sometimes used a loggia as an alternative to the portico. This is most simply described as a recessed portico, or an internal single storey room with pierced walls that are open to the elements. Occasionally a loggia would be placed at second floor level over the top of another loggia, creating what was known as a double loggia.[12] Loggias were sometimes given significance in a façade by being surmounted by a pediment. Villa Godi's focal point is a loggia rather than a portico, with loggias terminating each end of the main building.[13]

Villa Capra "La Rotonda" (begun c. 1565) – one of Palladio’s most influential designs

Palladio would often model his villa elevations on Roman temple façades. The temple influence, often in a cruciform design, later became a trademark of his work.[14][n 3] Palladian villas are usually built with three floors: a rusticated basement or ground floor, containing the service and minor rooms; above this, the piano nobile (noble level), accessed through a portico reached by a flight of external steps, containing the principal reception and bedrooms; and lastly a low mezzanine floor with secondary bedrooms and accommodation. The proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3:4 and 4:5. The arrangement of the different rooms within the house, and the external façades, were determined by similar ratios.[15] Earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical façade; however, Palladio's designs related to the entire structure.[13]

Palladio considered the dual purpose of his villas as the centres of farming estates and weekend retreats.[16] These symmetrical temple-like houses often have equally symmetrical, but low, wings sweeping away from them to accommodate horses, farm animals, and agricultural stores.[17] The wings, sometimes detached and connected to the villa by colonnades, were designed not only to be functional but also to complement and accentuate the villa. Palladio did not intend them to be part of the main house, however, and the development of the wings to become integral parts of the main building – undertaken by Palladio's followers in the 18th century – became one of the defining characteristics of Palladianism.[18]

Venetian and Palladian windows

Main article: Venetian window
Basilica Palladiana, Vicenza (from 1546) – loggia with Palladian windows

Palladian, Serlian,[n 4] or Venetian windows are a trademark of Palladio's early career. There are two different versions of the motif: the simpler one is called a Venetian window, and the more elaborate a Palladian window or "Palladian motif", although this distinction is not always observed.[20]

The Venetian window has three parts: a central high round-arched opening, with two smaller rectangular openings to the sides. The side windows are topped by lintels and supported by columns.[21] This is derived from the ancient Roman triumphal arch, and was first used outside Venice by Donato Bramante and later mentioned by Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554) in his seven-volume architectural book Tutte l'opere d'architettura et prospetiva (All the Works of Architecture and Perspective) expounding the ideals of Vitruvius and Roman architecture.[22] It can be used in series, but is often only used once in a façade, as at New Wardour Castle,[23] or once at each end, as on the inner façade of Burlington House (true Palladian windows).[24]

Palladio's elaboration of this, normally used in a series, places a larger or giant order in between each window, and doubles the small columns supporting the side lintels, placing the second column behind rather than beside the first. This was introduced in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice by Jacopo Sansovino (1537), and heavily adopted by Palladio in the Basilica Palladiana in Vicenza,[25] where it is used on both storeys; this feature was less often copied. The openings in this elaboration are not strictly windows, as they enclose a loggia. Pilasters might replace columns, as in other contexts. Sir John Summerson suggests that the omission of the doubled columns may be allowed, but the term "Palladian motif" should be confined to cases where the larger order is present.[26]

Claydon House (begun 1757) – the Venetian window in the central bay is surrounded by a unifying blind arch[27]

Palladio used these elements extensively, for example in very simple form in his entrance to Villa Forni Cerato.[28] It is perhaps this extensive use of the motif in the Veneto that has given the window its alternative name of the Venetian window. Whatever the name or the origin, this form of window has become one of the most enduring features of Palladio's work seen in the later architectural styles evolved from Palladianism.[29] According to James Lees-Milne, its first appearance in Britain was in the remodelled wings of Burlington House, London, where the immediate source was actually in Inigo Jones's designs for Whitehall Palace rather than drawn from Palladio himself. Lees-Milne describes the Burlington window as "the earliest example of the revived Venetian window in England".[30]

A variant, in which the motif is enclosed within a relieving blind arch that unifies the motif, is not Palladian, though Lord Burlington seems to have assumed it was so, in using a drawing in his possession showing three such features in a plain wall. Modern scholarship attributes the drawing to Vincenzo Scamozzi.[n 5] Burlington employed the motif in 1721 for an elevation of Tottenham Park in Savernake Forest for his brother-in-law Lord Bruce (since remodelled).[32][n 6] William Kent picked it up in his designs for the Houses of Parliament, and it appears in his executed designs for the north front of Holkham Hall.[34] Another example is Claydon House, in Buckinghamshire; the remaining fragment is one wing of what was intended to be one of two flanking wings to a vast Palladian house. The scheme was never completed and parts of what was built have since been demolished.[27]

Early Palladianism

The Queen's House, Greenwich (begun 1616) – Inigo Jones's masterpiece[35]

During the 17th century, many architects studying in Italy learned of Palladio's work, and on returning home adopted his style, leading to its widespread use in England, Europe and North America.[36][37] Isolated forms of Palladianism throughout the world were brought about in this way. However, the Palladian style did not reach the zenith of its popularity until the 18th century.[38] In Venice itself there was an early reaction to the excesses of Baroque architecture that manifested itself as a return to Palladian principles. The earliest neo-Palladians there were the exact contemporaries Domenico Rossi (1657–1737)[n 7] and Andrea Tirali (1657–1737).[n 8] Their biographer, Tommaso Temanza, proved to be the movement's most able and learned proponent; in his hands the visual inheritance of Palladio's example became increasingly codified in correct rules and drifted towards neoclassicism.[40]

The most influential follower of Palladio was the Englishman Inigo Jones, who travelled throughout Italy with the 'Collector' Earl of Arundel,[n 9] annotating his copy of Palladio's treatise, in 1613–14.[42][n 10][n 11] The "Palladianism" of Jones and his contemporaries and later followers was a style largely of façades, and the mathematical formulae dictating layout were not strictly applied. A handful of great country houses in England built between 1640 and 1680, such as Wilton House,[45] are in this Palladian style.[46] These follow the great success of Jones' Palladian designs for the Queen's House at Greenwich,[47] the first English Palladian house,[48] and the Banqueting House at Whitehall, the uncompleted royal palace in London of Charles I.[49]

Palladian designs advocated by Inigo Jones were too closely associated with the court of Charles I to survive the turmoil of the English Civil War.[50][51] Following the Stuart restoration, Jones's Palladianism was eclipsed by the Baroque designs of such architects as William Talman and Sir John Vanbrugh, Nicholas Hawksmoor, and even Jones' pupil John Webb.[52][53]

Neo-Palladianism

English Palladian architecture

Stourhead House, East façade (1724) – based on Palladio's Villa Emo, the image is from Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus.

The Baroque style was popular in continental Europe, but was never truly to the English taste, where it was described as too "theatrical, exuberant and Catholic."[54][55] It was superseded in Britain in the first quarter of the 18th century when four books highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture.[56][57] These were:

  • The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs, published by William Kent in two volumes in 1727. A further volume, Some Designs of Mr. Inigo Jones and Mr. William Kent was published in 1744 by the architect John Vardy, an associate of Kent.[59]

The most favoured among patrons was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Campbell.[60] Campbell was both an architect and publisher.[61][n 12] It was essentially a book containing architectural prints of British buildings, and inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio; at first mainly those of Inigo Jones, but the later works contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects.[63] These four books greatly contributed to Palladian architecture becoming established in 18th-century Britain.[64] Campbell and Kent became the most fashionable and sought after architects of the era. Due to his book Vitruvius Britannicus, Campbell was chosen as the architect for Henry Hoare I's Stourhead house.[65] Hoare's brother-in-law, William Benson, had designed Wilbury House, the earliest 18th-century Palladian house in Wiltshire, which Campbell had illustrated in Vitruvius Britannicus.[66][n 13]

Holkham Hall, South front (1734) – the four flanking wings are elevated, in height and importance, almost to the status of the central block.

At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl", Richard Boyle, according to Dan Cruikshank the "man responsible for this curious elevation of Palladianism to the rank of a quasi-religion".[68][69] In 1729, he and Kent designed Chiswick House.[70][71] This house was a reinterpretation of Palladio's Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and ornament.[72] This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of English Palladianism.[73]

In 1734 Kent and Burlington designed Holkham Hall in Norfolk.[74][75] James Stevens Curl considers it "the most splendid Palladian house in England".[76] The main block of the house followed Palladio's dictates quite closely, but his low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. Kent attached them to the design, banished the farm animals, and elevated the wings to almost the same importance as the house itself.[77] It was the development of the flanking wings that was to cause English Palladianism to evolve from being a pastiche of Palladio's original work. Wings were frequently adorned with porticos and pediments, often resembling, as at the much later Kedleston Hall, small country houses in their own right.[78][n 14]

Woburn Abbey (1746) – designed by Burlington's student Henry Flitcroft and showing further development of the wings

Architectural styles evolve and change to suit the requirements of each individual client. When in 1746 the Duke of Bedford decided to rebuild Woburn Abbey, he chose the Palladian style as it was then the most in fashion, and selected the architect Henry Flitcroft, a protégé of Burlington.[79][80] Flitcroft's designs, while Palladian in nature, had to comply with the Duke’s determination that the plan and footprint of the earlier house, originally a Cistercian monastery, be retained.[81] The central block is small, only three bays, the temple-like portico is merely suggested, and it is closed. Two great flanking wings containing a vast suite of state rooms[82] replace the walls or colonnades which should have connected to the farm buildings;[n 15] the farm buildings terminating the structure are elevated in height to match the central block and given Palladian windows, to ensure they are seen as of Palladian design.[84] This development of the style was to be repeated in countless houses and town halls in Britain over one hundred years. Often the terminating blocks would have blind porticos and pilasters themselves, competing for attention with, or complementing the central block. This was all very far removed from the designs of Palladio two hundred years earlier. Falling from favour during the Victorian era, the approach was revived by Sir Aston Webb for his refacing of Buckingham Palace in 1913.[85][n 16]

English Palladian houses were now no longer the small but exquisite weekend retreats from which their Italian counterparts were conceived. They were not weekend villas but "power houses" in Sir John Summerson's term, the symbolic centres of power of the Whig "squirearchy" that ruled Britain.[88][89] Summerson thought Kent's Horse Guards on Whitehall epitomised "the establishment of Palladianism as the official style of Great Britain".[59] As the style peaked, thoughts of mathematical proportion were swept away. Rather than square houses with supporting wings, these buildings had the length of the façade as their major consideration: long houses often only one room deep were deliberately deceitful in giving a false impression of size.[90]

Irish Palladian architecture

Russborough, Co. Wicklow (1741–1755) – an example of Irish Palladianism[91]

During the Palladian revival period in Ireland, even modest mansions were cast in a neo-Palladian mould. Irish Palladian architecture subtly differs from the England style. While adhering as in other countries to the basic ideals of Palladio, it is often truer to them.[92] In Ireland, Palladianism became political; both the original and the present Irish parliaments occupy Palladian buildings.[93]

The Irish architect, Sir Edward Lovett Pearce (1699–1733), became a leading advocate.[94] He was a cousin of Sir John Vanbrugh, and originally one of his pupils. He rejected the Baroque style, and spent three years studying architecture in France and Italy before returning to Ireland. His most important Palladian work is the former Irish Houses of Parliament in Dublin.[95] Christine Casey, in her 2005 volume Dublin, in the Pevsner Buildings of Ireland series, considers the building, "arguably the most accomplished public set-piece of the Palladian style in [Britain]".[96] Pearce was a prolific architect who went on to design the southern façade of Drumcondra House in 1725[97] and Summerhill House in 1731,[98] which was completed after his death by Richard Cassels.[99] Pearce also oversaw the building of Castletown House near Dublin, designed by the Italian architect Alessandro Galilei (1691–1737).[92] It is perhaps the only Palladian house in Ireland built with Palladio's mathematical ratios, and one of the three Irish mansions which inspired the design of the White House in Washington.[100]

Other examples include Russborough, designed by Richard Cassels,[101] who also designed the Palladian Rotunda Hospital in Dublin and Florence Court in County Fermanagh.[90] Irish Palladian country houses often feature robust Rococo plasterwork – an Irish specialty which is frequently executed by the Lafranchini brothers and far more flamboyant than the interiors of their contemporaries in England.[102] So much of Dublin was built in the 18th century that it set a Georgian stamp on the city; however, due to poor planning and poverty, Dublin was until recently one of the few cities where fine 18th-century housing could be seen in ruinous condition.[103] Elsewhere in Ireland, during and following the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent civil war, very large numbers of country houses were abandoned to ruin or destroyed.[104][105][106]

North American Palladian architecture

Hammond-Harwood House (1774) – modelled after the Villa Pisani from I quattro libri dell'architettura

Palladio's influence in North America is evident almost from the beginning of architect-designed building there;[n 17] the Irish philosopher George Berkeley may be America's first recorded Palladian. Berkeley purchased a large farmhouse in Middletown, Rhode Island in the late 1720s, and added a Palladian doorcase derived from Kent's Designs of Inigo Jones (1727), which he may have brought with him from London.[107] Palladio's work was included in the library of a thousand volumes amassed for Yale College.[108] Peter Harrison’s 1749 designs for the Redwood Library in Newport, Rhode Island borrow directly from Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura, while his plan for the Newport Brick Market, conceived a decade later, is also Palladian.[109]

The only two houses in the United States from the English colonial period that can be definitively attributed to designs from I quattro libri dell'architettura are the Hammond-Harwood House (1774) in Annapolis, Maryland and Thomas Jefferson's first Monticello (1770). Hammond-Harwood was designed by the architect William Buckland in 1773–1774 for the wealthy farmer Matthias Hammond of Anne Arundel County, Maryland. The design source is the Villa Pisani,[110] and that for the first Monticello, the Villa Cornaro at Piombino Dese.[111] Both are taken from Book II, Chapter XIV of I quattro libri dell'architettura.[112] Jefferson later made substantial alterations to Monticello, known as the second Monticello (1802–1809),[113] so that the Hammond-Harwood House remains the only pure and pristine example of direct modelling in modern America.[114]

Thomas Jefferson's Monticello (1772)

Jefferson referred to I quattro libri dell'architettura as his bible.[n 18] Although a politician, his passion was architecture,[117] and he developed an intense appreciation of Palladio's architectural concepts; his designs for the James Barbour Barboursville estate, the Virginia State Capitol, and the University of Virginia campus all being based on illustrations from Palladio's book.[118][119][n 19] Realizing the political significance of ancient Roman architecture to the fledgling American Republic, Jefferson designed his civic buildings, such as The Rotunda,[121] in the Palladian style, echoing in his buildings for the new republic examples from the old.[122]

In Virginia and Carolina, the Palladian style is found in numerous Tidewater plantation houses, such as Stratford Hall,[123] Westover Plantation[124] and Drayton Hall near Charleston.[125] At Westover the north and south entrances, made of imported Portland stone, were patterned after a plate in William Salmon's Palladio Londinensis (1734).[126][n 20] The distinctive feature of Drayton Hall, its two-storey portico, was derived from Palladio.[128], as was Mount Airy, in Richmond County, Virginia, built in 1758–1762.[129] A particular feature of American Palladianism was the re-emergence of the great portico which, again, as in Italy, fulfilled the need of protection from the sun; the portico in various forms and size became a dominant feature of American colonial architecture. In the north European countries the portico had become a mere symbol, often closed, or merely hinted at in the design by pilasters, and sometimes in very late examples of English Palladianism adapted to become a porte-cochère; in America, the Palladian portico regained its full glory.[130]

The Rotunda, University of Virginia (1822–1826)

The neoclassical presidential mansion, the White House in Washington, was inspired by Irish Palladianism.[100] Both Castle Coole and Richard Cassel's Leinster House in Dublin claim to have inspired the architect James Hoban, who designed the executive mansion, built between 1792 and 1800. Hoban, born in Callan, County Kilkenny, in 1762, studied architecture in Dublin, where Leinster House (built c. 1747) was one of the finest buildings at the time.[100] The White House is more neoclassical than Palladian, particularly the South façade, which closely resembles James Wyatt's 1790 design for Castle Coole, also in Ireland. Castle Coole is, in the words of the architectural commentator Gervase Jackson-Stops, "A culmination of the Palladian traditions, yet strictly neoclassical in its chaste ornament and noble austerity."[131]

Because of its later development, Palladian architecture in Canada is rarer. In her 1984 study, Palladian Style in Canadian Architecture, Nathalie Clerk notes its particular impact on public architecture, as opposed to the private houses in the United States.[132] One notable example is the Nova Scotia Legislature building, completed in 1819.[133] Another example is Government House in St. John's, Newfoundland.[134] The Center for Palladian Studies in America, Inc., a non-profit membership organization, was founded in 1979 to research and promote understanding of Palladio's influence in the United States.[135]

Palladianism elsewhere

Berlin Opera House (1743)

The rise of neo-Palladianism in England contributed to its adoption in Prussia. Count Francesco Algarotti wrote to Lord Burlington to inform him that he was recommending to Frederick the Great the adoption in his own country of the architectural style Burlington had introduced in England.[136] By 1741, Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff had already begun construction of the Berlin Opera House on the Unter den Linden, based on Campbell's Wanstead House.[137]

Palladianism was also adopted internationally, particularly in areas under colonial rule. Examples can be seen in the Indian subcontinent; the Raj Bhavan, Kolkata (formerly Government House) was modelled on Kedleston Hall,[138] while Pilar Maria Guerrieri, in her article, Migrating architectures: Palladio’s legacy from Calcutta to New Delhi, identifies Palladian influences in Lutyens' Delhi.[139] In South Africa, Federico Freschi notes the "Tuscan colonnades and Palladian windows" of Herbert Baker’s Union Buildings.[140]

Legacy

Henbury Hall, Cheshire (1986) – 20th century Palladianism modelled on the Villa Capra[141]

By the 1770s in Britain, such architects as Robert Adam and William Chambers were in huge popular demand, but they were now drawing on a great variety of classical sources, including ancient Greece, so much so that their forms of architecture were eventually defined as neoclassical rather than Palladian.[142][143] In Europe, the Palladian revival ended by the end of the 18th century. In the 19th century, proponents of the Gothic Revival such as Augustus Pugin, remembering the origins of Palladianism in ancient temples, considered it pagan, and unsuited to Anglican and Anglo-Catholic worship.[144][145][n 21] In North America, Palladianism lingered a little longer; Thomas Jefferson's floor plans and elevations owe a great deal to Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura.[147]

The term "Palladian" is often misused in modern discourse, and tends to be used to describe buildings with any classical pretensions.[148][149] There was however a revival of a more serious Palladian approach in the 20th century; Colin Rowe, an influential architectural theorist, published an essay, The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa, (1947), in which he drew links between the compositional "rules" in Palladio's villas and Le Corbusier's villas at Poissy and Garches.[150][151] Suzanne Walters, in her article, The Two Faces of Modernism, suggests a continuing influence of Palladio’s ideas on architects of the 20th century.[152][n 22] In the 21st century Palladio’s name regularly appears among the world’s most influential architects.[154][155] In England, Raymond Erith (1904–1973) drew on Palladian inspirations, and was followed in this by his pupil, subsequently partner, Quinlan Terry.[156] Their work, and that of others,[141] led the critic John Martin Robinson to suggest that "the Quattro Libri continues as the fountainhead of at least one strand in the English country house tradition."[157][n 23]

See also

Notes, references and sources

Notes

  1. ^ An exhibition to celebrate the 500th anniversary of Palladio's birth opened in Vicenza in 2008. Among the many exhibits was a copy of Vitruvius’s Ten Books of Architecture, illustrated by Palladio, and owned, and extensively annotated, by El Greco.[2]
  2. ^ Palladio's description of the Villa Capra includes the commentary; "One enjoys the most beautiful views on all sides and for this reason, porticos have been built on all four sides."[11]
  3. ^ Giles Worsley, in his study Inigo Jones and the European Classicist Tradition, writes; "The portico is so strongly associated today with the country house, and specifically with Palladio's villas, it is easy to forget that, outside of the Veneto, it was principally associated with religious buildings until the late seventeenth century".[10]
  4. ^ After Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554), an architect and illustrator whose L'Architetturra was a model for Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura.[19]
  5. ^ Inigo Jones met Scamozzi in Venice in 1613-4 and the former’s acerbic criticisms of the latter, "in this as in most things Scamozzi errs", have been much analysed by architectural historians. Nonetheless, Giles Worsley notes the large number of books and drawings by Scamozzi Jones held in his library, and their considerable influence on his work.[31]
  6. ^ A design by Burlington for a Kitchen block at Tottenham draws inspiration very directly from a Palladio design for the Villa Valmarana (Vigardolo).[33]
  7. ^ Rossi built the new façade for the rebuilt Sant'Eustachio, known in Venice as San Stae, 1709, which was among the most sober in a competition that was commemorated with engravings of the submitted designs, and he rebuilt Ca' Corner della Regina, 1724–1727.[39]
  8. ^ His façade of San Vidal is a faithful restatement of Palladio's San Francesco della Vigna and his masterwork is Tolentini, Venice (1706–1714).[39]
  9. ^ Thomas Howard, 14th Earl of Arundel was a noted accumulator of art of almost every kind. His amassing of paintings, antiques and books brought him the sobriquet, 'The Collector Earl'.[41]
  10. ^ Inigo Jones's annotated copy of I quattro libri dell'architettura is held in the library of Worcester College, Oxford. Summerson described it as "a document fraught with great significance for English architecture."[43]
  11. ^ Jones travelled as far south as Naples where he closely studied the church of San Paolo Maggiore. Palladio had written about, and illustrated, this church which, before severe damage in an earthquake in 1688, "looked like the Roman temple it essentially was".[44]
  12. ^ Modern scholarship suggests that Campbell's talents as a copyist and self-publicist exceeded his architectural ability. John Harris, in his 1995 catalogue The Palladian Revival, accuses Campbell of "outrageous plagiari[sm]".[62]
  13. ^ In 1718 William Benson manoeuvred Sir Christopher Wren out of his post of Surveyor of the King's Works, but held the job for less than a year; John Summerson notes, "Benson proved his incompetence with surprising promptitude and resigned in 1719".[67]
  14. ^ At Holkham, the four wings contain a chapel, a kitchen, a guest wing and a private family wing.[75]
  15. ^ The architectural historian Mark Girouard, in his work, Life In The English Country House, notes that the arrangement developed by Palladio with the wings of the villa containing farm buildings was never followed in England. Although there are examples in Ireland and in North America, such "a close connection between house and farm was entirely at variance with the English tradition".[83]
  16. ^ Sir Aston Webb drew inspiration for his Buckingham Palace east frontage from the south front of Lyme Park, Cheshire by Giacomo Leoni (1686–1746).[86][87]
  17. ^ A brief survey is Robert Tavernor, "Anglo-Palladianism and the birth of a new nation" in Palladio and Palladianism, (1991), pp.181–209; Walter Muir Whitehill, Palladio in America, (1978) is still the standard work.
  18. ^ An exhibition, Jefferson and Palladio: Constructing a New World was held at the Palladio Museum in Vicenza in 2015–2016. The exhibition was dedicated to Mario Valmarana, Professor of Architecture at the University of Virginia and a descendant of the family who commissioned Palladio to design the Villa Valmarana.[115][116]
  19. ^ In a letter to James Oldham, dated Christmas Eve 1804, Jefferson wrote, "there never was a Palladio here even in private hands until I brought one. I send you my portable edition. It contains only the 1st book on the orders, which is the essential part".[120]
  20. ^ Specifically, both doors seem to have been derived from plates XXV and XXVI of Palladio Londinensis, a builder's guide first published in London in 1734, the year when the doorways may have been installed.[127]
  21. ^ In Contrasts, his trumpet blast against Classical architectural forms, Pugin quotes approvingly from Charles Forbes René de Montalembert; "modern Catholics have formed the types of their churches from the detestable models of pagan error, raising temples in imitation of the Parthenon and the Pantheon, representing the Eternal Father under the semblance of Jupiter, the blessed Virgin as a draped Venus, saints as amorous nymphs and angels in the form of Cupids."[146]
  22. ^ Examples include Peter Zumthor’s Secular Retreat in Devon, a “countryside villa in the tradition of Andrea Palladio”,[153] and Julian Bicknell's Henbury Hall in Cheshire.[141]
  23. ^ The Palladian inspiration for modern British architects has not always been appreciated. In an article in Apollo entitled "The curse of Palladio", the critic Gavin Stamp critiqued Erith and Terry’s work as “photocopy-Palladian, classical details stuck onto dull boxes”.[158]

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Sources

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palladian architecture.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Palladian".

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