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Red hair

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This article is about people with red hair, also sometimes called redheads. For other uses, see Redhead (disambiguation) and Red hair (disambiguation).
File:Woman redhead natural portait.jpg
Woman with red hair
Man with red hair

Red hair (also referred to as auburn, ginger, ranga or titian) varies from a deep orange-red through burnt orange to bright copper. It is characterized by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin and relatively low levels of the dark pigment eumelanin. People with red hair are often referred to as redheads or, gingers.[1] Approximately 1% to 2% of the human population have red hair.[2][3] It occurs more frequently (between 2% and 6% of the population) in northern and western Europeans, and their descendants, and at lower frequencies throughout other parts of Europe, Asia and Africa. Red hair appears in people with two copies of a recessive gene on chromosome 16 which causes a change in the MC1R protein. It is associated with fair skin color, freckles, and sensitivity to ultraviolet light, as the mutated MC1R protein is found in the skin and eyes instead of the darker melanin. Cultural reactions have varied from ridicule to admiration; many common stereotypes exist regarding redheads, and they are often portrayed as the “fiery-tempered redhead”.

As well as in humans, red hair can be found in other mammalian species such as orangutans, squirrels, goats, and highland cattle. Red hair or fur can be found in some breeds of dog and cat, and certain species of fox and deer.

Geographic distribution

Historical

Several accounts by Greek writers detail redheaded people. A fragment by the Greek poet Xenophanes describes the Thracians as blue-eyed and red haired. The Greek historian Herodotus described the "Budini", probably Udmurts and Permyak Finns located on the Volga in what is modern-day Russia, as being predominantly redheaded. The Greek historian Dio Cassius described Boudica, the famous Celtic Queen of the Iceni, to: "be tall and terrifying in appearance ... a great mass of red hair ... over her shoulders".

The Roman Tacitus commented on the "red hair and large limbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia Scotland",[4] which he linked with some red haired Gaulish tribes of Germanic and Belgic relation.

Red hair was also found in Asia, notably among the Tocharians who occupied the northwesternmost province of what is modern-day China. The 2nd millennium BC caucasian Tarim mummies in China were found with red and blonde hair.[5]

Modern

Palestinian girl with auburn red hair

Today, red hair is most commonly found at the western fringes of Europe. It is associated with those in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, and less so in England. This matches the movement of the Brython tribe (native Britons, also known as Celts or Picts) as they were pushed out of England and into the Celtic regions by the Roman conquest of Britain.

Scotland has the highest proportion of redheads in the world as 13 percent of the population has red hair and approximately 40 percent carries the recessive redhead gene [6]. Ireland has the second highest number of redheads worldwide; as many as 10 percent of the Irish population have ginger, auburn (red-brown) or strawberry blond hair.[7] It is thought that up to 35 percent of the Irish population carries the recessive redhead gene. Red hair reaches frequencies of up to 10 percent in Wales.[8] In England, the county of Cornwall and the far north, near the Scottish border, also have significant proportions of redheads.

In the United States, anywhere from two to six percent of the population is estimated to have red hair.[2] This would seemingly give the U.S. the largest population of redheads in the world, at 6 to 18 million, compared to approximately 650,000 in Scotland and 420,000 in Ireland.

Red hair appears amongst Ashkenazi Jews.[citation needed]

Red or reddish-tinged hair is also found in other European populations particularly in the Nordic and Baltic countries as well as parts of the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Northern Spain, Italy, Germany, Russia and Southeastern Europe.

The Berber and Kabylie populations of northern Algeria and Morocco have occasional redheads.[9]

In Asia, darker or mixed tinges of red hair can be found sporadically from Northern India, Iran and Pakistan, and in rare instances in Japan[10] and the South Pacific. Red hair can be found amongst those of Iranian descent, such as the Pashtuns.

Biochemistry and genetics

The late British MP Robin Cook was one of many redheaded Scots.

The pigment pheomelanin gives red hair its distinctive color. Red hair has far more pheomelanin than other hair colors, but far less of the dark pigment eumelanin. Auburn hair has both high levels of pheomelanin and eumelanin.

The genetics of red hair, discovered in 1997, appears to be associated with the melanocortin-1 receptor, which is found on chromosome 16. Red hair is associated with fair skin color and sensitivity to ultraviolet light. The MC1R recessive gene, which gives people red hair and fair skin, is also associated with freckles, though it is not uncommon to see a redhead without freckles. Eighty percent of redheads have a MC1R gene variant,[11] and the prevalence of these alleles is highest in Scotland and Ireland. The alleles that code for red hair occur close to the alleles that impact skin color, so it seems that the phenotypic expression for lighter skin and red hair are interrelated.

There is some indication that the uncommon pheomelanin/eumelanin ratios found in redheads may be correlated with some corresponding variations in the abundance of other hormones and neuropeptides, including epinephrine (adrenaline), dopamine, and oxytocin. Wolves which are bred to be tame have been found to acquire a progressively paler coat of fur as they become tamer and tamer through successive generations. The speculation is that the cell biology which produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and estrogens needed for the high-energy fight-or-flight response is linked to the cell biology that governs the relative production of pheomelanin and eumelanin.

Genetics

The genetics of red hair are now being uncovered, together with connections between red hair and melanoma, skin disorders in general, and different reactions to anaesthesia. There is evidence of genetic linkage of eye color with other hair colors, such as brown hair, although MC1R is not linked to eye color. The inheritance of red hair is close to what geneticists describe as an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance. This means that the parents of red haired children may carry the gene for red hair but not have red hair themselves.

There is also evidence that red hair may be an example of incomplete dominance. This means that when only one copy of the red hair allele is present, red hair may blend with the other hair color, resulting in different types of red hair including strawberry blond (red-blond) and auburn (red-brown).

The alleles Arg151Cys, Arg160Trp, Asp294His, and Arg142His on MC1R are shown to be recessives for the red hair phenotype.[12]

Also possibly related to red hair is the gene HCL2 (aka RHC, RHA) on chromosome 4.[13][14]

Evolution

Red hair is the rarest type of natural hair color in humans. The pale skin associated with red hair may be of advantage in far-northern climates where sunlight is scarce. Studies by Bodmer and Cavalli-Sforza (1976) hypothesized that lighter skin pigmentation prevents rickets in colder latitudes by encouraging higher levels of Vitamin D production and also allows the individual to retain heat better than someone with darker skin.[15] Rees (2004) suggested that the vividness and rarity of red hair may lead to it becoming desirable in a partner and therefore it could become more common through sexual selection.[16]

Harding et al (2000) proposed that red hair was not the result of positive selection but rather occurs due to a lack of negative selection. In Africa, for example, red hair is selected against because high levels of sun would be harmful towards fair skin. However, in Northern Europe this does not happen and so redheads come about through genetic drift.[12]

Estimates on the original occurrence of the currently active gene for red hair vary from 20,000 to 100,000 years ago.[17][18]

A DNA study has concluded that some Neanderthals also had red hair, although the mutation responsible for this differs from that which causes red hair in Homo Sapiens [1].

Medical implications of the red hair gene

Bleeding and bruising

There is little or no evidence to support the belief that redheads are more likely than non-redheads to haemorrhage or suffer other bleeding complications;[19][20] however, one study found that redheads reported higher rates of bruising.[20]

Melanoma

Melanin in the skin aids UV tolerance through suntanning, but fair-skinned redheads lack the levels of melanin needed to prevent sunburn. Studies have shown that red hair alleles in MC1R effect increased freckling and decreased tanning ability.[21] It has been found that Europeans that are heterozygous for red hair exhibit increased sensitivity to UV radiation.[16]

Red hair and its relationship to UV sensitivity are of interest to many melanoma researchers. Sunshine can both be good and bad for a person's health and the different alleles on MC1R represent these adaptations. It also has been shown that individuals with pale skin are highly susceptible to a variety of skin cancers such as melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma.[22][23]

Sensitivity to pain

In people with red hair, the cells that produce skin and hair pigment have a dysfunctional MC1R. Researchers have found that this dysfunction triggers the release of more of the hormone that stimulates these histonal cells, but this hormone also stimulates a brain receptor related to pain sensitivity.[24][25]

Two studies have demonstrated that redheads have differential sensitivity to pain compared to non-redheads, but they differ as to the direction of the effect. One study found that redheads are more sensitive to thermal pain (a natural vitamin K deficiency is to blame for this)[26] while another study concluded that redheads are less sensitive to pain from electrical stimuli. It has also been found that mutated "redheaded" mice with non-functional MC1R are less sensitive to pain from multiple modalities.[27]

Researchers have found that redheads require greater amounts of anesthesia, but other research shows that women with naturally red hair require less of the painkiller pentazocine than do either women of other hair colors or men of any hair color. A study showed redheaded women had a greater analgesic response to that particular pain medication than men.[28] A follow-up study by the same group showed that redheaded men and women (and mutant "redhead" mice) had a greater analgesic response to morphine-6-glucuronide.[27]

Red hair of pathological origin

Most red hair is caused by the MC1R gene and is non-pathological. However, in some cases red hair can be associated with disease or genetic disorder:

  • In cases of severe malnutrition, normally dark human hair may turn red or blonde. The condition, part of a syndrome known as kwashiorkor, is a sign of critical starvation caused chiefly by protein deficiency, and is common during periods of famine.
  • One variety of albinism (Type 3, aka rufous albinism), sometimes seen in Africans and inhabitants of New Guinea, results in red hair and red-colored skin.[29]
  • Red hair is found on people lacking pro-opiomelanocortin.[29][30]

Culture

File:Far Away Thoughts.jpg
A red-haired woman, Far Away Thoughts John William Godward 1892. Red hair was a popular subject amongst Pre-Raphaelite artists

In various times and cultures, red hair has been prized, feared, and ridiculed.

Beliefs about temperament

A common stereotype of redheads is that they have fiery tempers. In Anne of Green Gables, a character says of Anne Shirley, the redheaded heroine, that "her temper matches her hair", while in The Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield remarks that "People with red hair are supposed to get mad very easily, but Allie [his dead brother] never did, and he had very red hair."

During the early stages of modern medicine, red hair was thought to be a sign of a sanguine temperament.[31] In the Indian medicinal practice of Ayurveda, redheads are seen as most likely to have a Pitta temperament.

Another belief is that redheads are highly-sexed; for example, Jonathan Swift satirizes redhead stereotypes in part four of Gulliver's Travels, "A Voyage to the Country of the Houyhnhnms," when he writes that: "It is observed that the red-haired of both sexes are more libidinous and mischievous than the rest, whom yet they much exceed in strength and activity." Swift goes on to write that: "...neither was the hair of this brute [a Yahoo] of a red color (which might have been some excuse for an appetite a little irregular) but black as a sloe..."[32] Bruce Springsteen maintains that "you have not lived til you have had your tyres rotated by a red headed woman" in the song 'red headed woman'. His wife is a redhead. Marilyn Monroe was originally a red head.

Positive attitudes toward redheads

"Accolade" by Edmund Blair Leighton. A red-headed princess knighting a noble fighter.

Queen Elizabeth I of England was a redhead, and during the Elizabethan era in England, red hair was fashionable for women. In modern times, red hair is subject to fashion trends; celebrities such as Rita Hayworth, Molly Ringwald, Nicole Kidman, Rupert Grint, Ashley Tisdale, Lindsay Lohan, Shirley Manson, Gillian Anderson, Melinda Clarke, Kirsten Dunst, Bonnie Wright and Jessica Origliasso of The Veronicas can boost sales of red hair dye.

Sometimes, red hair darkens as people get older, becoming a more brownish color or losing some of its vividness. This leads some to associate red hair with youthfulness, a quality that is generally considered desirable. In several countries such as India, Iran, and Pakistan, henna is used on hair to give it a bright red appearance.[33]

Many painters have exhibited a fascination with red hair. The color "titian" takes its name from Titian, who often painted women with red hair. Early Renaissance artist Sandro Botticelli's, famous painting, The Birth of Venus, depicts the mythological goddess, Venus, as a redhead. Other painters notable for their redheads include the Pre-Raphaelites,[34] Edmund Leighton, Modigliani,[35] Gustav Klimt.[36]

According to a Clairol Color Attitudes Survey, redheaded women see themselves as fearless and savvy. [2] These traits are often seen in fictional redheads such as Nancy Drew and Anne Shirley.

In comics, cartoons and science fiction, female characters with red hair (and often green eyes) are frequently portrayed as strong and "fiery" personalities. Examples are: Mara Jade (from the Star Wars Expanded Universe), Lady Jessica (of Frank Herbert's Dune universe), Barbara Gordon (the DC Comics Universe heroine), Mary-Jane Watson (wife of Spider-Man), Jean Grey (founding X-Man), Poison Ivy (Batman villain), Shayera Hol (Justice League animated series), Lois Griffin (Family Guy), Ariel (The Little Mermaid), and Kimberly Ann Possible (Kim Possible).

American writer Mark Twain wrote: "While the rest of the species is descended from apes, redheads are descended from cats".[37] Bruce Springsteen praised his wife, Patti Scialfa, in the bawdy song "Red-Headed Woman", The Zutons missed the "ginger hair" of an ex-girlfriend in their song "Valerie", while Jack White of the White Stripes has mentioned red hair in such songs as "Fell in Love with a Girl", "Icky Thump (song)", "300 MPH Torrential Outpour Blues" and "Take,Take,Take".

Notable red-headed men include: Winston Churchill, Thomas Jefferson, Vincent Van Gogh, Mark Twain, George Washington, Patrick Henry, Jean Paul Sartre, Jeremiah Johnson, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Antonio Vivaldi, Billy the Kid, Shaun White, David Caruso, Axl Rose, Conan O'Brien, Vin Scully, Eric Stoltz, Mark McGwire, Bill Walton, James Joyce, Napoleon Bonaparte.

Prejudice/Discrimination towards redheads

During the Middle Ages in Southern and Central Europe, red was the color of the devil and the redheads were said to be conceived during the forbidden period of women's menstruation.[citation needed] Red hair was thought to be a mark of a beastly sexual desire and moral degeneration. A savage red-haired man is portrayed in the fable by Grimm brothers (Der Eisenhans) as the spirit of the forest of iron. Theophilus Presbyter describes how the blood of a red-haired young man is necessary to create gold from copper, in a mixture with the ashes of a basilisk.[38]

According to Montague Summers, red hair and green eyes were thought to be the sign of a witch, a werewolf or a vampire in Eastern and Southern Europe ever since the Middle Ages. [citation needed] Anne Rice's Vampire Chronicles, mention many redheads, including twin-witch/vampires Maharet and Mekare in Queen of the Damned, Maharet's fledgling Thorne in Blood and Gold, her other fledgling and once-mortal blood descendant, Jesse Reeves (also introduced in Queen of the Damned), Mona Mayfair in Blackwood Farm and Armand, described as an auburn red in Interview with the Vampire. In Dracula, the vampire-hunter Abraham Van Helsing is ironically depicted as having red hair and blue eyes.

In modern-day UK and Ireland, despite being the places with the highest populations of redheads, the word "ginger" is derogatorily used to describe red headed people, with terms such as "gingerphobia" (fear of redheads)[39] or "gingerism" (prejudice against redheads)[40] used by the media. Redheads are also sometimes referred to disparagingly as "carrot tops". "Gingerism" has been compared to racism, although this is widely disputed and bodies such as the UK Commision for Racial Equality do not monitor cases of discrimination and hate crimes against redheads.[40] Prince Harry was bullied at school because of his red hair.[41] A UK woman recently won an award from a tribunal after being sexually harassed and receiving abuse because of her red hair; a family in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, was forced to move twice after being targeted for abuse and hate crime on account of their red hair;[42] and in 2003, a 20 year old was stabbed in the back for "being ginger."[43]

This prejudice has been satirised on a number of TV shows. The British comedian Catherine Tate appeared as a red haired character in a running sketch of her series The Catherine Tate Show. The sketch saw fictional character Sandra Kemp, who was forced to seek solace in a refuge for ginger people because they had been ostracised from society. The British comedy Bo' Selecta! featured a spoof documentary which involved a caricature of red-haired "Simply Red" singer Mick Hucknall presenting a show in which celebrities (played by themselves) dyed their hair red for a day and went about daily life being insulted by people.

The pejorative use of the word "ginger", and related discrimination, was used to illustrate a point about racism and prejudice in the "Ginger Kids" episode of South Park.

Films and television programmes typically portray school bullies as having red hair[44], based on the stereotype that redheads are more temperamental, and thus allowing the audience to identify the bully faster by their hair color; examples are the O'Doyle family in the movie Billy Madison and Scut Farkus in A Christmas Story. However, children with red hair are often themselves targeted by bullies; "Somebody with ginger hair will stand out from the crowd," says anti-bullying expert Louise Burfitt-Dons [45]There appears to be a greater level of abuse aimed at male than at female redheads, and the issue seems to be greater in the United Kingdom than in some other countries, such as the United States.[citation needed]

Mythological traditions

According to Strong's Hebrew Dictionary, the name of the Biblical character Adam, the first man of the human race, is identical to the Hebrew word for "red" or "ruddy." (However, 'red' is spelled differently in Hebrew than 'Adam', which is literally the word for 'person'. 'Person' and 'Adam' are spelled and pronounced the same, indicating a common origin.) Some speculate that Adam's name perhaps indicates his skin tone or hair color. Esau's entire body is supposed to have been covered with red hair. King David is also known for having red hair, based on the description of his physical appearance as "admoni", the Biblical Hebrew word normally interpreted to mean 'ruddy' and/or 'red-haired' (1 Samuel 16-17).

Mary Magdalene is commonly portrayed with long red hair, as in this picture by Anthony Frederick Augustus Sandys.

Early artistic representations of Mary Magdalene usually depict her as having long flowing red hair, although a description of her hair color was never mentioned in the Bible, and it is possible the color is an effect caused by pigment degradation in the ancient paint. This tradition is used as a plot device in the book and movie The Da Vinci Code. Thor, of Norse mythology, was generally portrayed as having red hair. Ancient Egyptians associated both red-haired humans and red-colored animals with the god Set, considering them to be favored by the powerful and temperamental deity. Several pharaohs associated with Set are described as being redheaded, including Rameses the Great.

There is a tradition amongst astrologers that the planet Mars is more likely to be rising above the eastern horizon at the time of the birth of a red haired person than for the population in general.[46] The name of the ancient kingdom of Rus may have been derived from the local word for red hair. The name of Russia was subsequently adopted from the same root. See Etymology of Rus and derivatives (third bullet under Etymology) and Russia.[citation needed]

Modern fiction

The Sherlock Holmes story "The Red-Headed League" (1891) was a favourite of its author, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, and included a sub-plot revolving around a pseudo-society restricted to redheads. The 1840 comic play Der Talisman by Johann Nestroy is about prejudice against redheads.

In Still Life with Woodpecker by Tom Robbins, redheads are said to be children of the moon, thwarted by the sun and addicted to sex and sugar. Similarly, in The Illuminatus! Trilogy, green-eyed redheads are said to be the favorite cohorts of The Devil.

Several children's book characters are depicted with red hair, including Pippi Longstocking, Anne of Green Gables, and Little Orphan Annie. In the Harry Potter series, members of the Weasley family all have red hair, as did Lily Potter, Harry Potter's late mother, and Albus Dumbledore (before his hair went white with age). J.K. Rowling, author of the Harry Potter books, has stated that she is fond of redheads, despite the prejudice she observes they experience in the UK.[47]

Many of Robert A. Heinlein's characters were redheads, inspired by his red-headed wife Virginia.[48]

In Doctor Who (2005), David Tennant's Tenth Doctor is disappointed not to be ginger. As he says, he's rude and not ginger and he wanted to be ginger because he's never been in his past regenerations.

Another powerful red hair-related fiction novel is the international bestseller Perfume (originally published in German as Das Parfum) by Patrick Süskind. The main character, Jean-Baptiste Grenouille, a man with an incredible sense of scent, is engaged in creating the most powerful perfume of them all. The heart of it, the fragance of Laura Richis, a beautiful red hair young virgin.

In the film The Last King of Scotland, Forest Whitaker as Idi Amin maintains that Blacks find red hair revolting.


See also

Look up redhead in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Further reading

  • Allen Sacharov. The Red Head Book (1985).
  • Stephen Douglas. The Redhead Encyclopedia (1996).
  • Tim Collins. The Ginger Survival Guide (2006).
  • Uwe Ditz. Redheads (2000).
  • Marion Roach. Roots of Desire: The Myth, Meaning and Sexual Power of Red Hair (2005).
  • Cort Cass. The Redhead Handbook (2003).

References

  1. ^ "It's a pain being ginger". BBC NEWS. Retrieved 2006-04-27.
  2. ^ a b c Red Alert! Washington Post: Original Date 2002-03-19. Accessed 2007-02-06.
  3. ^ National Geographic, September, 2007
  4. ^ The Life of Agricola, Ch. 11
  5. ^ Mysterious Mummies of China PBS Transcript: Airdate 1998-01-20
  6. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/scotland/819117.stm
  7. ^ http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110521660/ABSTRACT American Journal of Physical Anthropology Volume 26, Issue 1, 1940]
  8. ^ The Annals of Human Genetics, Vol. 20, p. 327, 1955-56
  9. ^ Stirling, John. The Races of Morocco. Journal of the Anthropological Society of London, Vol. 8, 1870 - 1871 (1870 - 1871), pp. clxix-clxxiii doi:10.2307/3025183
  10. ^ Yamamoto M., and Neel J.V. "A note on red hair on the Island of Hirado, Japan". Jinrui Idengaku Zasshi. March 1967. 11 (4), pp 257-62.
  11. ^ Valverde P, Healy E, Jackson I, Rees JL, Thody AJ. Variants of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor gene are associated with red hair and fair skin in humans. Nature Genetics . 1995 November;11(3):328-30.
  12. ^ a b Harding, Rosalind M. et al. Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R American Journal of Human Genetics , 2000 April; 66(4): 1351–1361.
  13. ^ HGNC Symbol Report:HCL2
  14. ^ Major locus for red hair color linked to MNS blood groups on chromosome 4. Eiberg H, Mohr J. University Institute of Medical Genetics, Copenhagen, Denmark.
  15. ^ Bodmer WF, Cavalli-Sforza LL.Genetics, evolution and man. San Francisco:WH Freeman; 1976.
  16. ^ a b The Genetics of Sun Sensitivity in Humans by Jonathan L. Rees. The American Journal of Human Genetics, volume 75 (2004), pages 739–751.
  17. ^ Nicole's hair secrets Daily Telegraph 2002-10-02, Accessed 2005-11-02
  18. ^ Red hair genes 100,000 years old Oxford Blueprint Vol. 1 Issue 11 2001-05-31
  19. ^ Kumar Veena V., Kumar Naveen V., and Isaacson Glenn.Superstition and post-tonsillectomy hemorrhage The Laryngoscope 2004, vol. 114, no11, pp. 2031-2033
  20. ^ a b Liem, Edwin B. et al. Women with Red Hair Report a Slightly Increased Rate of Bruising but Have Normal Coagulation Tests Anesthesia & Analgesia 2006;102:313-318
  21. ^ Pleiotropic effects of the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene on human pigmentation. Flanagan, Healy, et al. Human Molecular Genetics, 2000, Vol. 9, No. 17 2531-2537.
  22. ^ Rees JL (2002a) Molecular phototypes. In: Ortonne J-P, Ballotti R (eds) Mechanisms of suntanning. Martin Dunitz, London, pp 333–339
  23. ^ Rees JL (2002b) Skin cancer (including nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome). In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler K (eds) The genetic basis of human cancer, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 529–548
  24. ^ Liem, Edwin B., et al. "Anesthetic Requirement Is Increased in Redheads" Anesthesiology: Volume 101(2), August 2004, pp 279-283.
  25. ^ "Red heads suffer more pain", NewScientist.com news service, 15 October 2002
  26. ^ Liem EB, Joiner TV, Tsueda K, Sessler DI. Increased sensitivity to thermal pain and reduced subcutaneous lidocaine efficacy in redheads. Anesthesiology. 2005 March;102(3):509-14.
  27. ^ a b Mogil JS et al. Melanocortin-1 receptor gene variants affect pain and mu-opioid analgesia in mice and humans. Journal of Medical Genetics. 2005 July;42(7):583-7.
  28. ^ Mogil JS et al. The melanocortin-1 receptor gene mediates female-specific mechanisms of analgesia in mice and humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 2003 April 15;100(8):4867-72.
  29. ^ a b Pathology Guy: Accumulations and Deposits Ed Friedlander, M.D., Pathologist. Last updated 2006-09-24
  30. ^ Human Molecular Genetics. 11: 1997, 2002; Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 994: 233, 2003
  31. ^ The Practical Magnetic Healer G. M. Brown 1899
  32. ^ Gulliver's Travels on Project Gutenberg Original by Jonathan Swift 1726
  33. ^ Henna – history Plant Cultures: Exploring plants and people. 2004-11-18
  34. ^ The Art of Being a Redhead - Gallery of 19th Century portraits of women with red hair
  35. ^ Modigliani painting
  36. ^ Klimt painting
  37. ^ http://thinkexist.com/quotation/while_the_rest_of_the_species_is_descended_from/346515.html Thinkexist.com
  38. ^ Palo Galloni, Il sacro artefice, Laterza, Bari 1998 (Italian book, chapter 2 about the recipe of Theophilus De auro hyspanico).
  39. ^ Gingerphobia: Carrot-tops see red BBC News, 2000-02-22
  40. ^ a b BBC News, Is Gingerism as Bad as Racism?, retrieved 2007-07-05
  41. ^ Carrot Tops: Being red not so easy ABCNews
  42. ^ Red-haired family forced to move BBC News, 2 June 2007
  43. ^ BBC News, Man stabbed over "ginger hair", retrieved 2007-07-05
  44. ^ Daily Bruin, The stigma of TV’s redheads, retrieved April 3, 2006
  45. ^ Carrot-Tops: Being Red Not So Easy - ABC News
  46. ^ The Astrological Journal, vol. 5, p. 2224 (September-October 1988)
  47. ^ Some Random Facts About The Weasley Family JKRowling.com Retrieved on 2007-07-30
  48. ^ The Passing of Ginny Heinlein - The Heinlein Society
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