Husein Gradaščević
Husein-kapetan Gradaščević (1802 – August 17, 1834) was a Bosniak general who fought for Bosnian autonomy in the Ottoman Empire. He is often referred to as "Zmaj od Bosne", meaning "Dragon of Bosnia", because he often called himself this. Gradaščević was born in Gradačac in 1802, and grew up surrounded by a political climate of turmoil in the western reaches of the Ottoman Empire. When his brother Murat was poisoned by a rival in 1821, Gradaščević rose to the head of the Gradačac military captaincy. The young Husein developed a reputation for wise rule and tolerance, soon becoming one of the most popular figures in Bosnia.
In 1831 Gradaščević was called upon to lead the movement for Bosnian autonomy. Soon he overthrew the loyalist vizier of the province, as well as other anti-rebellion figures, becoming the de facto ruler of the Bosnian pashaluk. On July 18 of the same year, Gradaščević met a large force commanded by the grand vizier himself near Shtimje/Štimlje in Kosovo and dealt a heavy defeat to the imperial army. At that point, however, he decided to turn back from further campaigns, returning to Bosnia where on September 12 he was proclaimed the new vizier by his soldiers. By 1832 however, the tide of the rebellion began to turn. After a series of smaller clashes, the decisive battle occurred on the 17th and 18th of May outside Sarajevo. Initially winning, the rebels were eventually defeated when Herzegovinian reinforcements arrived and sided with the Sultan.
Although the Bosniak uprising wouldn't be completely quelled for another 18 years, Gradaščević was forced to flee to the Habsburg Monarchy on May 31. From there he negotiated for his return with the Sultan, ultimately being allowed back but barred from ever entering Bosnia again. He moved to Belgrade and then to Istanbul, where he died under mysterious circumstances on August 17, 1834. A legend in his own time, Gradaščević is considered a Bosniak national hero and one of the most positive figures in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Background and youth
The most widely accepted theory about the origins of the Gradaščević family is that they came to Bosnia from Buda. There they were said to be high-ranking Ottoman officials and soldiers, and even upon their arrival they were already known as being particularly rich and of high status. They settled in Bosnian Posavina based on an imperial decree giving them land there, along with military responsibilities for the region. The local peasantry knew them as beys and sepahis, and eventually forged a feudal relationship with them. On the other hand, private family tradition holds that the Gradaščevićs were descendants of feudal Bosnian nobility, though historical sources suggest otherwise.
The first known captain of the Gradaščević captaincy in Gradačac is Mehmed-kapetan, whose rule lasted until 1169 A.H. (1755/1756). The name of his successor is unknown; although this next captain was eventually succeeded by Mehmed-kapetan in 1765 (It was a common tradition among Bosniaks for children to be named after their paternal grandfathers). Mehmed-kapetan was in turn succeeded by Osman-kapetan, who was known to be one of the most powerful captains in Bosnia in his time. Osman-kapetan had six male heirs. In order of birth they were Hamza, Murat, Osman, Muharem, Husein, and H. Bećir. As Hamza died in 1212 A.H. (1797/1798), it was Murat-beg who succeeded him to the captaincy.
Husein was born to Osman and his wife Melek-hanuma in 1802 in the Gradaščević family house in Gradačac. Little is known of his childhood outside of family tradition and occasional bits of folklore invented much later. He was said to spend much time around the family fort, which was being renovated at the time. He grew up during turbulent times in the region, and taking into account his father's military experience and brother Osman's services during the 1813 war against Serbia, young Husein surely heard many first-hand stories and accounts that, doubtless, shaped his personality.
Osman senior died in 1812 when Husein was merely 10-years-old. Certain scholars have argued that his mother was also dead by then, although certain family traditions claim otherwise. By all accounts, his mother had a strong influence on Husein's upbringing. Upon the death of his father, Husein also looked up to his eldest brother Murat because of his age and status as successor to the Gradačac captaincy.
Well educated as his status implied, Husein learned to read and write at an early age. At the age of 16 he was taught Arabic calligraphy as well by Murat's personal scribe Mullah Mustevica, who praised his brightness and called him a "gifted child". In addition to this Husein was taught by two dervishes, although it is not known whether Husein himself belonged to a dervish order. Based on his great religiousness and modest lifestyle that he would demonstrate in the future however, it can be assumed that Husein was a dervish himself.
Husein was married to Hanifa, sister of Mahmud-kapetan of Derventa, at an early age. Although the exact date is unknown, his son Muhamed-beg was probably born no later than 1822, when Husein was 20-years-old himself. Eventually the pair would have a daughter, Šefika, born in 1833. Neither Muhamed nor Šefika were known to have had children themselves.
In the year 1820 Murat was invited to Travnik by rival Dželaludin-pasha amidst a troubled political climate in Bosnia. He was poisoned by Dželaludin upon his arrival and died. As Osman and Muharem had already died by then, Husein thus ascended to the head of the Gradačac captaincy at the young age of 18.
Gradačac captaincy
As soon as Husein took over the Gradačac captaincy he focused most of his attention on running its internal affairs. It is notable that, as opposed to his brother and father, all of Husein's construction projects were related to the city of Gradačac and its immediate area. During his rule, Gradačac also further expanded its status as one of the most prosperous captaincies in Bosnia.
The first and most notable construction was that on the Gradaščević family castle. The fort had existed for decades, and was subject to extensive renovations since the time of Mehmed-kapetan in 1765. Husein's father Osman and Brother Murat had done some work as well, in 1808 and 1818/1819 respectively. However, the exact nature of Husein's contribution to the complex is unknown. The castle's tower has long been associated with Husein, but architectural evidence points to the tower existing alongside the rest of the complex from earlier times. It seems likely, thus, that Husein was responsible for a significant renovation of the tower that would linger in the people's memory.
Husein was, however, responsible for a completely new castle built entirely under his rule. By all accounts this was a large project, which included the construction of an artificial island surrounded by a moat up to 100 meters wide and of a great depth. The castle was named Čardak, and the surrounding village quickly derived its name for it. The walls were of an oval shape, the entire structure being 17 meters long and 8 meters wide. The complex and area also included a mosque, wells, a fishery, and hunting grounds.
Within the Gradačac city walls, Husein's most significant contribution to the city was the clock tower (bosnian: sahat-kula) which, according to a plaque on the structure, was built in 1824. The object's base is 5.5 by 5.5 meters, while the height is 21.50 meters. It was the last object of this type to be built in Bosnia.
40-50 meters outside the city walls lies Husein's greatest architectural contribution to Gradačac: the Husejnija mosque. Built in 1826, it features an octagonal dome roof and a particularly high minaret of 25 meters. A deeply religious man, Husein built the mosque because he felt it necessary for the city's worshippers. Three smaller octagonal domes are found above the verandah. Islamic decorations and artistry are seen on the door and surrounding wall, as well as the interior. The entire complex is surrounded by a small stone wall and gate.
Husein's rule in Gradačac was notable because of his great tolerance towards the christian populace under his jurisdiction; both catholic and orthodox. Though social norms of the time dictated that the Sultan's official approval was necessary for the construction of any non-Islamic religious buildings, Husein approved the construction of several such buildings without it. A catholic school was built in the village of Tolisa in 1823, followed by a large church that could hold 1500 people. Another two catholic churches were built in the villages Dubrave and Garevac, while an orthodox church was built in the hamlet of Obudovac as well. During Husein's captaincy the Christians in Gradačac were widely known as the most satisfied in Bosnia.
The year 1827 marked Husein's entrance into the greater Bosnian political scene. This was largely due to the impending Russo-Ottoman war and his role in preparations to defend the boundaries of the Bosnian eyelet. Immediately upon receiving orders from the Bosnian vizier Abdurahim-paša, Husein mobilized the Gradačac populace and strengthened his defenses. During talks held in Sarajevo between the vizier and the country's captains, it was Husein who stayed the longest to discuss strategy. He was soon appointed commander of an army he was to mobilize from the lands between the Drina to the Vrbas. By all accounts he did a satisfactory job. However, in mid June of 1828, Husein had to rush to Sarajevo with a small accompanying force to get the vizier to safety following a revolt among the troops.
By 1830, not long before the revolt he was to lead, Husein was in such a high position that he was able to speak on behalf of all (or at least most of) the captains of Bosnia. At that time he was already coordinating other captains to ready their defenses against a possible invasion by Serbia, as well as taking it upon himself to address Habsburg authorities and warn them against any incursion across the Sava. This authority he wielded in the latter years of his captaincy in Gradačac helps explain the great role he was to have in the years to follow.
Movement for Bosnian autonomy
The road to rebellion
In the late 1820s Sultan Mahmud II re-introduced a set of reforms that called for further expansion of the centrally-controlled army (nizam), new taxes and more Ottoman bureaucracy. These reforms weakened the special status and privilages Bosnia had historically enjoyed under the Ottoman empire, and coupled with the growing power and position of other European people under Ottoman control caused much anger and alarm. Contrary to popular belief, however, Gradaščević was not greatly opposed to these reforms.
In 1826 when the Sultan issued a decree abolishing the janissaries in Bosnia Gradaščević's immediate reaction was not unsimilar to that of the rest of the Bosnian aristocracy, specifically threatening that he would use military force to subdue anybody opposed to the Sarajevo janissaries. When the janissaries killed nakibul-ešrafTemplate:Fn Nurudin effendi Šerifović however, his tone shifted and he rapidly distanced himself from their cause.
For the rest of the 1820s Gradaščević generally maintained good relations with imperial authorities in Bosnia. When Abdurahim-paša became the vizier in 1827, Gradaščević was said to have become one of his more trusted advisors. This culminated in Gradaščević's large role in the Bosnian mobilization for the Russo-Ottoman war, mentioned above. Following a riot in the Sarajevo camp during these preparations, Gradaščević even provided shelter for the ousted Abdurahim-paša in Gradačac before assisting him in his escape from the country. Gradaščević was also relatively loyal to Abdurahim's successor, Namik-paša, reinforcing Ottoman garrisons in Šabac upon his orders.
The turning point came with the end of the Russo-Ottoman War and the Treaty of Adrianople on September 14, 1829. According to the provisions of the treaty the Ottoman empire had to, among other things, grant autonomy to Serbia. In a move that outraged Bosniaks and launched numerous protests, newly autonomous Serbia was also given six nahijas, or districts, that had traditionally belonged to Bosnia. Following this take-away of century-old Bosnian lands the Bosnian autonomy movement was born.
Between the 20th and 31st of December, 1830, Gradaščević hosted a gathering of Bosniak aristocrats in Gradačac. A month later, from January 20 to February 5 another meeting was held in Tuzla to prepare for the revolt. From there, a call was issued to the Bosnian populace asking them to rise up to the defense of Bosnia. It was then that the popular Husein-kapetan was unofficially chosen to head the movement. Further details of this meeting are murky and desputable. According to certain contemporary sources, however, the Bosniaks demanded that Istanbul:
- Repeals the privilages granted to Serbia and, in particular, returns the 6 old Bosnian districts.
- Ceases the implementation of the nizam military reforms.
- Ends the governorship of Bosnia and accepts the implementation of an autonomous Bosnian government headed by a local man. In return, Bosnia would pay a yearly tribute.
The fight for autonomy
One other thing that was agreed upon during the Tuzla meeting was that another general meeting should be held in Travnik. As Travnik was the seat of the Bosnian pashaluk and the vizier, this was in effect a direct confrontation with Ottoman authority. Gradaščević thus asked all involved to help assemble an army beforehand. On March 29, 1831, his commands obeyed, Gradaščević set out towards Travnik with some 4,000 men.
Upon hearing of the oncoming force, Namik-paša went into the Travnik fort and called the Sulejmanpašić brothers to his aid. Soon afterwards the rebel army arrived in Travnik and fired several warning shots at the castle, warning the vizier that they were prepared for a military encounter. Meanwhile, Gradaščević sent a detachment of his forces, under the command of Memiš-aga of Srebrenica, to meet Sulejmanpašić's reinforcements. The two sides met at Pirot, on the outskirts of Travnik, on April 7. There, Memiš-aga soundly defeated the Sulejmanpašić brothers and their 2,000 man army, forcing them to retreat and destroying all possessions of the Sulejmanpašić family. On May 21st, Namik-paša fled to Stolac following a short siege. Soon afterwards, Gradaščević proclaimed himself the "Commander of Bosnia, chosen by the will of the people".
Wasting no time, Gradaščević mad a call on May 31 demanding that all aristocrats immediately join his army, along with all from the general populace who wished to do so. Thousands rushed to join him, among them being numerous Christians, who were said to compose up to a third of his total forces. Gradaščević split his army, leaving one part of it in Zvornik to defend against a possible Serbian incursion. With the bulk of the troops however, he set out towards Kosovo to meet the grand vizier, who had been sent with a large army to quell the rebellion. Along the way he quickly took over Peć and Priština, where he set up his main camp.
The encounter with Grand Vizier Mehmed Rashid-paša's happened on July 18 near Shtimje/Štimlje. Though both armies were of roughly equal size, the Grand Vizier's troops had superior arms. Gradaščević sent a part of his army under the command of Ali-beg Fihadić ahead to meet Rashid-paša's forces. Following a small skirmish, Fihadić feigned a retreat. Thinking that victory was within reach, the Grand Vizier foolishly sent his cavalry and artillery into forested terrain. Gradaščević immediately took advantage of this tactical error and executed a punishing counter-attack with the bulk of his forces, almost completely annihilating the Ottoman forces. Rashid-paša himself had been injured and barely escaped with his life.
Following claims from the Grand Vizier that the Sultan would meet all Bosniak demands if the rebel army would just return to Bosnia, Gradaščević and his army turned back home. On August 10 a meeting of all major figures in the movement for autonomy was held in Priština. At this meeting it was decided that Husein Gradaščević should be declared vizier of Bosnia. Although Gradaščević himself at first refused, those around him insisted and he eventually accepted the honor. His new status was made official during an all-Bosnian congress held in Sarajevo on September 12. In front of the Tsar's Mosque, those present swore on the Qu'ran to be loyal to Gradaščević, and declared that despite potential failure and death there would be no turning back.
At this point Gradaščević was not only the supreme military commander, but Bosnia's leading civilian authority as well. He established a court around him and, after initially making himself at home in Sarajevo, he moved the center of Bosnian politics to Travnik, making it the de facto capital of the rebelling state. There he established a Divan, a Bosnian congress, which together with him made up the Bosnian government. Gradaščević also collected taxes at this time, and executed various local opponents of the autonomy movement. He gained a reputation as a hero, and a strong, brave, and decisive ruler. One anecdote that illustrates this is Husein-kapetan's alleged response to whether he was at all scared of waging war against the Ottoman Empire. "God I fear slightly," Gradaščević replied, "the Sultan not at all, and the Grand Vizier no more than my own horse."
During this short lull in the armed conflict with the Ottomans, attention was turned to the autonomy movement's strong opposition in Herzegovina. A small campaign was launched against the region from three different directions:
- 1. An army from Sarajevo was ordered to attack Stolac for a final encounter with Namik-paša, who had fled there following Gradaščević's capture of Travnik.
- 2. An army from Krajina was to assist the Sarajevo forces in this endeavor.
- 3. Armies from Posavina and south Podrinje were to attack Gacko and local captain Smail-aga Čengić.
As it turned out, Namik-paša had already abandoned Stolac, so this attack was put on hold. The attack on Gacko was a failure as the forces from Posavina and south Podrinje were defeated by Čengić's troops. There was one success however; in October, an army Gradaščević had deployed under the command of Ahmed-beg Resulbegović had taken over Trebinje from Resulbegović's loyalist cousins and other supporters of the Stolac opposition.
In November that year, a Bosnian delegation reached the Grand Vizier's camp in Skopje. The Grand Vizier promised this delegation that he would insist to the Sultan that he accept the Bosniak demands and appoints Gradaščević as the official vizier of an autonomous Bosnia. His true intentions, however, were manifested by early December when he attacked Bosnian units stationed on the outskirts of Novi Pazar. Yet again, the rebel army handed a defeat to the imperial forces. Due to a particularly strong winter though, the Bosnian troops were forced to return home.
Meanwhile, in Bosnia, Gradaščević decided to carry on his campaign in Herzegovina despite the unfavorable climate. The captain of Livno, Ibrahim-beg Fidrus, was ordered to launch a final attack against the local captains and to thus end all domestic opposition to the autonomy movement. To achieve this, Fidrus first attacked Ljubuški and the local captain Sulejman-beg. In a significant victory, Fidrus defeated Sulejman-beg and secured the whole of Herzegovina except Stolac in the process. Unfortunately, the segment of the army that laid siege to Stolac itself met with failure in early March next year. Receiving information that the Bosnian ranks were depleted due to the winter, the captain of Stolac Ali-paša Rizvanbegović broke the siege, counterattacking the rebels and dispersing their forces. A force had already been sent towards Stolac from Sarajevo, under the command of Mujaga Zlatar, but was ordered back by Gradaščević on March 16 after he received news of a major offensive on Bosnia being planned by the Grand Vizier.
The Ottoman campaign began in early February. The Grand Vizier sent two armies; one from Vučitrn and one from Shkodër. Both armies headed towards Sarajevo, and Gradaščević sent an army of around 10,000 men to meet them. When the Vizier's troops succeeded in crossing the Drina, Gradaščević ordered 6,000 men under Ali-paša Fidahić to meet them in Rogatica while units stationed in Višegrad were to head to Pale on the outskirts of Sarajevo. The encounter between the two sides finally happened in the Glasinac plains to the east of Sarajevo, near Sokolac, at the end of May. The Bosnian army was led by Gradaščević himself, while the Ottoman troops were under the command of Kara Mahmud Hamdi-paša, the new imperially recognized vizier of Bosnia. In this first encounter, Gradaščević was forced to retreat to Pale. After the fight was continued there, Gradaščević was once again forced to retreat; this time to Sarajevo. There, a council of captains decided that the fight would be continued.
The final battle was played out on June 4 at Stup, a small locality on the road between Sarajevo and Ilidža. After a long intense battle it seemed Gradaščević had once again defeated the Sultan's army. Near the very end, however, Herzegovinian troops under the command of Ali-paša Rizvanbegović and Smail-aga Čengić broke through defenses Gradaščević had set up on his flank and joined the fighting. Overwhelmed by the unexpected attack from behind the rebel army was forced to retreat into the city of Sarajevo itself. There, it was decided that further military resistance would be futile. Gradaščević fled to Gradačac as the imperial army entered the city on June 5 and made preparations to march on Travnik. Upon realizing the difficulties that his home and family would experience if he stayed there, Gradaščević decided to leave Gradačac and continue on to Austrian lands instead.
Exile and death
If the choice to flee Bosnia wasn't already clear, the Sultan's furious fatwa declaring Gradaščević "no good", an "evil-doer", a "traitor", a "gangster" and a "rebel" certainly sealed the deal. Due to various customs and procedures, however, Gradaščević's departure from Bosnia was held up for several days. After pleading with Austrian officials to ease their restrictions, Gradaščvić finally reached the Sava river boundary with a large party of followers on June 16. He crossed the river into Habsburg lands the same day, along with some 100 followers, servants, and family. Though he expected to be treated as a Bosnian vizier, he instead found himself held in quarantine in Slavosnki Brod for nearly a month, his weapons, and many of his possessions, taken away.
Austrian officials faced constant pressure from the Ottoman government to move Gradaščević as far away from the border as possible. On July 4 Husein was moved to Osijek where he essentially lived in internment. His communications with the rest of his family and social circle were severely limited, due to fears of conspiracy among fellow Bosnian rebels, and he complained to the authorities several times of his treatment. His conditions would eventually improve though, and before he left Osijek he complimented the city to officials and remarked that he had enjoyed his stay there. Though intensely homesick and only partially in control of his own destiny, Gradaščević retained his pride and arrogance. He was said to have lived a luxurious life that included jousting competitions with his companions.
In late 1832 Husein agreed to return to Ottoman territory to receive a ferman of pardon from the Sultan. The terms, read to him in Zemun, were very harsh, insisting that Gradaščević not only never returns to Bosnia, but never sets foot on the European lands of the Ottoman empire either. Disappointed, Gradaščević was forced to obey the terms and rode on to Belgrade. He entered the city on October 14 in the manner of a true vizier, riding a horse decked out in silver and gold and accompanied by a large procession. He was greeted as a hero and a living legend by the Muslims in Belgrade and treated like an equal by the local pasha. Gradaščević stayed in the city for two months, during which his health detirorated (as was documented by local doctor Bartolomeo Kunibert). He left the city for Istanbul in December, but as his daughter was still very young, his wife only joined him in the spring of the following year.
In Istanbul Gradaščević lived in an old janissary barracks at atmejdan (Hippodrome square), while his family were in a seperate house nearby. He lived a relatively quiet life for the next two years, the only really notable event being an offer from the Sultan for Gradaščević to become a high-ranking pasha in the Nizami army; an offer that Gradaščević indignantly refused. He died on August 17, 1834. Legend has it that he was poisoned by imperial authorities, but, considering his long failing health, a more probable cause might've been cholera. He was buried in Eyup Sultan Cemetery, near the site of the old veterinary school, where his grave remains to this day.
Legacy
Husein Gradaščević was a living legend in his own time, and upon his death he became something of a martyr for Bosnian pride. There was a well-known saying among Bosniaks that, "for years after his death not a signle man among our people would be able to hear his name and not shed a tear." The positive sentiment was not exclusive to the Muslim population however, and christians in Posavina shared a similar view for decades.
The first scientific literature written about Husein Gradaščević and his life can be found in Safvet-beg Bašagić's work from 1900, "A short introduction into the past of Bosnia and Herzegovina". Due to historical differences between the Bašagić and Gradaščević families however, Safvet-beg's view of Husein-kapetan is somewhat opinionated, in line with his family's view. A year later, Gradaščević was mentioned by Bartolomeos Kunibert, in his works on the first Serbian Uprising, who painted a fairly positive picture of Gradaščević as a tragic hero.
In the years that followed, Gradaščević was mentioned, either specifically or in the context of the moment he led, by D. Pavlović, Slavko Kaluđerčić, and Hamdija Kreševljaković. The general sentiment was that the autonomy movement was merely a reaction to imperial reforms by the Bosnian upper-class. This view would be predominant among historians for decades. Gradaščević had a minor resurgance during World War II though. Croatian fascists at the time considered Bosniaks to just be Muslim Croats, and in a propaganda attempt to win their loyalty there was a brief proposal to bring Gradaščević's remains back to Sarajevo.
During the time of the second Yugoslavia Gradaščević and his movement were rarely mentioned. The percieved upper-class resistance to implementation of modern reforms did not go well with communist ideology. Gradaščević was briefly mentioned in such a light by Avdo Sućeska in his 1964 work on Bosnian captains. It was another 24 years, however, before Gradaščević was mentioned again. This time it was in Galib Šljiva's 1988 work on Bosnia in the first half of the 19th century. Though several historiographical controversies were resolved, there was no significant shift in perception of Gradaščević.
Since the Yugoslav wars and the Bosniak national awakening, Gradaščević and his movement have experienced a rebirth among historians and the common public alike. Works by Ahmed S. Aličić, Mustafa Imamović, and Husnija Kamberović have all shed Gradaščević in a more positive light.. Gradaščević's is once again widely considered to be the greatest Bosniak national hero, and is a symbol of national pride and spirit. The main streets in Gradačac and Sarajevo are both named after him, as well as numerous other places in Bosnia and Herzegovina. An impressive statue and monument are also expected to be built in Gradačac in the near future, and talk of the possible return of Gradaščević's remains to his homeland has come up again, though significant progress has yet to come of it.
Notes
- Template:Fnb Arabic: Naqib al-ashraf. Leader of the descendants of the Prophet.
Sources
- Aličić, Ahmed S. (1996). Pokret za autonomiju Bosne od 1831. do 1832. godine. Sarajevo: Orijentalni institut.
- Imamović, Mustafa. (1997). Historija Bošnjaka. Borba za autonomiju Bosne - Husein-kapetan Gradaščević. Sarajevo: BZK Preporod.
- Kamberović, Husnija (2002). Husein-kapetan Gradaščević (1802-1834): Biografija : uz dvjestu godišnjicu rođenja. Gradačac: BZK Preporod.
See also
- Gradačac
- Fall of the Ottoman Empire
- History of Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Ottoman reform efforts between 1789 and 1849