Kofun period
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The Kofun period (古墳時代, Kofun jidai) is an era in the history of Japan from around 250 to 538. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from this era. The Kofun period follows the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period.
Generally, the Kofun period is divided from the Asuka period for its cultural differences. The Kofun period is illustrated by an animistic culture which existed prior to the introduction of Buddhism. Politically, the establishment of the Yamato court, and its expansion as allied states from Kyūshū to the Kantō are key factors in defining the period. Also, the Kofun period is the oldest era of recorded history in Japan. However, as the chronology of the historical sources are very much distorted, studies of this age require deliberate criticism and the aid of archaeology.
The archaeological record, and ancient Chinese sources, indicate that the various tribes and chiefdoms of Japan did not begin to coalesce into states until 300 AD, when large tombs began to appear while there were no contacts between western Japan and Korea or China. Some describe the "mysterious century" as a time of internecine warfare as various chiefdoms competed for hegemony on Kyūshū and Honshū.[1]
Kofun tombs
Kofun are defined as the burial mounds built for the people of the ruling class during the 3rd to 7th centuries in Japan,[2] and the Kofun period takes its name from these distinctive earthen mounds. The mounds contained large stone burial chambers. Some are surrounded by moats.
Kofun come in many shapes, with round and square being the simplest. A distinct style is the keyhole-shaped kofun, with its square front and round back. Kofun range in size from several meters to over 400 meters in length.
Development
The oldest Japanese kofun is said to be Hokenoyama Kofun located in Sakurai, Nara, which dates to the late 3rd century. In the Makimuku district of Sakurai, later keyhole kofuns (Hashihaka Kofun, Shibuya Mukaiyama Kofun) were built around the early 4th century. The trend of the keyhole kofun first spread from Yamato to Kawachi (where gigantic kofun such as Daisenryō Kofun exist), and then throughout the country (except for Tōhoku region) in the 5th century. Keyhole kofun disappeared later in the 6th century, probably because of the drastic reformation which took place in the Yamato court; Nihon Shoki records the introduction of Buddhism at this time. The last two great kofun are the Imashirozuka kofun (length: 190m) of Osaka, which is believed by current scholars to be the tomb of Emperor Keitai, and the Iwatoyama kofun (length: 135m) of Fukuoka which was recorded in Fudoki of Chikugo to be the tomb of Iwai, the political archrival of Keitai.
Keyhole kofuns were also recently discovered in the Gaya confederacy region of the Korean peninsula. This has caused scholars to begin examining the influences shared between the Yamato and Baekje during the 3rd and 7th centuries, including the method of tomb construction. While a variety of theories exist, most have come to the conclusion that there was sharing of culture and construction methods both directions.[3] For example, earrings discovered in Silla and Kaya tombs are very similar to Japanese earrings dated to the Kofun period, "The ultimate source of such elaborate techniques as granulation is probably the Greek and Etruscan goldsmiths of western Asia and Europe, whose skills were transmitted to northern China and later to Korea. The resemblance of earrings found in Japan in the Kofun period (ca. 3rd century—538 A.D.), to those from Silla and Kaya tombs suggests that such articles are imported from Korea"[4] Spread of Chinese civilisation, Han styles of tomb construction were gradually adopted in all three kingdoms of Korea, mainly from the 4th century onwards.[5] The tombs in the southern part of Korea and Japan appear to have a relationship.[3] However, all the kofun-style tombs discovered in Korea have been dated as younger than those found in Japan.leading Japanese scholars to insist that those found in Korea were either built by Japanese immigrants or influenced by culture brought by them.[3] but the advanced artifacts found in Japan's kofun tombs are Korean leading scholars to not be able to conclude anything.
Yamato court
While conventionally assigned to the period from 250 AD, the actual start of Yamato rule is disputed. The start of the court is also linked with the controversy of Yamataikoku and its fall. Regardless, it is generally agreed that Yamato rulers possessed keyhole kofun culture and held hegemony in Yamato up to the 4th century. The regional autonomy of local powers remained throughout the period, particularly in places such as Kibi (current Okayama prefecture), Izumo (current Shimane prefecture), Koshi (current Fukui and Niigata prefecture), Kenu (northern Kantō), Chikushi (northern Kyūshū), and Hi (central Kyūshū); it was only in the 6th century that the Yamato clans could be said to be dominant over the entire southern half of Japan. On the other hand, Yamato's relationships with China is likely to have begun in the late 4th century, according to the Book of Song.
The Yamato polity, which emerged by the late 5th century, was distinguished by powerful clans (豪族: Gōzoku). Each clan was headed by a patriarch (氏上: Ujikami) who performed sacred rites to the clan's kami to ensure the long-term welfare of the clan. Clan members were the aristocracy, and the kingly line that controlled the Yamato court was at its pinnacle. powerful clan leaders awarded kabane. Kabane is a title that denoted a political rank. This title was inherited, and used instead of the family name.
The Kofun period of Japanese culture is also sometimes called the Yamato period by some Western scholars, since this local chieftainship arose to become the Imperial dynasty at the end of the Kofun period. Yamato and its dynasty however were just one rival polity among others throughout the Kofun era. Japanese archaeologists emphasise instead the fact that in the early half of the Kofun period other regional chieftainships, such as Kibi were in close contention for dominance or importance. The Tsukuriyama Kofun of Kibi is the fourth largest kofun in Japan.
The Yamato court ultimately exercised power over clans in Kyūshū and Honshū, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on Chinese models (including the adoption of the Chinese written language), they started to develop a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. The famous powerful clans were the Soga, Katsuraki, Heguri, Koze clans in the Nara and Bizen Province, and the Kibi clans in the Izumo Province. The Ōtomo and Mononobe clans were the military leaders, and the Nakatomi and Inbe clans handled rituals. The Soga clan provided the highest minister in the government, while the Ohtomo and Mononobe clans provided the second highest ministers. The heads of provinces were called Kuni-no-miyatsuko. The crafts were organized into guilds.
The Yamato court had ties to the Gaya confederacy, called Mimana in Japanese. There is archaeological evidence from the Kofun tombs, which show similarities in form, art, and clothing of the depicted nobles. Based on the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, Japanese kokugaku historians claimed Gaya to be a colony of the Yamato state, a theory that is now widely rejected. More likely all these states were tributaries to the Chinese dynasties to some extent. However, Chinese scholars point to the Book of Song of the Liu Song Dynasty, written by the Chinese historian Shen Yue (441-513), presenting the sovereign of Japan as the suzerain of the Gaya Confederacy. This interpretation is also widely rejected even in Japan as there is no evidence of Japanese rule in Gaya or any other part of Korea.[6][7] Even more complicating is the Nihon Shoki referencing the Koreans to be the progenitor of Yamato. Due to these conflicting information nothing can be concluded for the book of Song or Nihon Shoki.
In recent years,many typical Japanese tumulus Kofun and jades was found in Baekje area and Gaya confederacy area.[8][9]
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Kofun helmet, iron and gilt copper. -
Kofun armor, iron plates sewn with leather. -
Kofun armor. -
Kofun helmet. -
Kofun shield.
Territorial expansion of Yamato
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In addition to archaeological findings indicating a local monarchy in the Kibi Province as an important rival, the legend of the 4th century Prince Yamato Takeru alludes to the borders of the Yamato and battlegrounds in the area. A frontier was obviously somewhere close to the later Izumo province (the eastern part of today's Shimane prefecture). Another frontier, in Kyūshū, was apparently somewhere north of today's Kumamoto prefecture. The legend specifically states that there was an eastern land in Honshū "whose people disobeyed the imperial court", against whom Yamato Takeru was sent to fight. That rivalling country may have been located rather close to the Yamato nucleus area itself, or relatively far away. The today Kai province is mentioned as one of the locations where prince Yamato Takeru sojourned in his said military expedition.
Northern frontier of this age was also explained in Kojiki as the legend of Shido Shogun's (四道将軍: Shoguns to four ways) expedition. Out of four shoguns, Ōbiko set northward to Koshi and his son Take Nunakawawake set to eastern states. The father moved east from northern Koshi while the son moved north on his way, and they finally met at Aizu (current western Fukushima). Although the legend itself is not likely to be a historical fact, Aizu is rather close to southern Tōhoku, where the north end of keyhole kofun culture as of late 4th century is located.
Ōkimi
During the Kofun period, a highly aristocratic society with militaristic rulers developed.
The Kofun period was a critical stage in Japan's evolution toward a more cohesive and recognized state. This society was most developed in the Kinai Region and the easternmost part of the Inland Sea. Japan's rulers of the time even petitioned the Chinese court for confirmation of royal titles.
While the rulers' titles are diplomatically King, they locally titled themselves as Ōkimi (Great King) during this period. Inscriptions in two swords, Inariyama Sword and Eta Funayama Sword had records of Amenoshita Shiroshimesu(治天下; "ruling of Heaven and Earth") and Ōkimi(大王) in common, to be a ruler that the bearers of these swords were subjected to. It reveals that rulers of this age also grasped religious authorities to justify their thrones through heavenly dignities. The title of Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Okimi was used up to 7th century, until being replaced by Tenno.
Clans of the Yamato Court
Many of the clans and local chieftains that made up the Yamato polity claimed descent from the imperial family or other tribal Gods. The archeological evidence for such clans is found in the Inariyama sword, on which the bearer recorded the names of his ancestors to claim its origin to Ōbiko (大彦) who was recorded in Nihon Shoki as a son of Emperor Kōgen. On the other hand, there are also a number of clans having origins in China or the Korean peninsula.
In the 5th century, the Kazuraki clan (葛城氏), descending from the legendary grandson of Emperor Kōgen, was the most prominent power in the court and intermarried with the imperial family. After Kazuraki declined in the late 5th century, the Ōtomo clan temporarily took its place. When Emperor Buretsu died with no apparent heir, it was Ōtomo no Kanamura who recommended Emperor Keitai, a very distant imperial relative who resided in Koshi Province, as the new monarch. However, Kanamura resigned due to the failure of his diplomatic policies, and the court was eventually controlled by the Mononobe and Soga clans at the beginning of the Asuka period.
Kofun society
Toraijin
Chinese and Korean immigrants who were naturalized in ancient Japan were called toraijin. They introduced many aspects of Chinese culture to Japan; valuing their knowledge and culture, the Yamato government gave preferential treatment to toraijin. The elements of Chinese culture introduced to the Yamato Imperial Court are very important.[7] According to the book Shinsen Shōjiroku compiled in 815, a total 154 out of 1,182 noble families in the Kinai are on Honshū Island were regarded as people with foreign genealogy. The book specifically mentions 163 were from China, 104 such families from Baekje, 41 from Goguryeo, 6 from Silla, and 3 from Gaya.[10] They might be families that moved to Japan between the years A.D.356-645.
Chinese migration
Many important figures were also immigrants from China. Chinese immigrants also had considerable influence according to the Shinsen Shōjiroku,[10] which was used as a directory of aristocrats. Yamato Imperial Court had officially edited the directory in 815, and 163 Chinese clans were registered.
According to Nihon Shoki, the Hata clan, which was composed of descendants of Qin Shi Huang[11], arrived at Yamato in 403 (the fourteenth year of Oujin) leading the people of 120 provinces. According to the Shinsen Shōjiroku, the Hata clan were dispersed in various provinces during the reign of Emperor Nintoku and were made to undertake sericulture and the manufacturing of silk for the court. When the finance ministry was set up in Yamato Court, Hata Otsuchichi (秦大津父) was in charge of accounts as a minister of it.
In 409 (twentieth year of Oujin), Achi-no-Omi ancestor of the Yamato-Aya clan which was composed of also arrived with the people of 17 districts. According to the Shinsen Shōjiroku, Achi obtained the permission to establish the Province of Imaki. The Kawachi-no-Fumi clan, descendants of Gaozu of Han, introduced aspects of Chinese writing to the Yamato court.
The Takamuko clan is a descendant of Cao Cao. Takamuko-no-Kuromaro was a center member of Taika Reform.[12]
Korean migration
Among the many Korean immigrants who settled in Japan beginning in the 4th century, some came to be the progenitors of Japanese clans. According to Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, the oldest record of a Silla immigrant is Amenohiboko, a legendary prince of Silla who settled to Japan at the era of Emperor Suinin, perhaps around the 3rd or 4th century. Amenohiboko is described in Nihon Shoki as a maternal predecessor of Empress Jingū[13][14][15], whose controversial legend says that she defeated Silla. This is highly inconsistent, as Jingū is said to have lived in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and she is supposed to have died in 269 AD. These conflicting information make it difficult to understand these records.
Korean immigrants also include the Baekje royal family. King Muryeong of Baekje was born in 462, and left a son in Japan who settled there. King Muryeong was the grandfather of Japan's Emperor according to the historical documents the Chronicals of Japan.
Language
Chinese, Korean and Japanese wrote accounts of history mostly in Chinese characters, making original pronunciations difficult to trace.
While writing was largely unknown to the indigenous Japanese of this period, the literary skills of foreigners seem to have increasingly become appreciated by the elites of some Japanese regions. The Inariyama sword, made in either China (tentatively dated 471 or 531) contains Chinese-character inscriptions in styles used in China, leading to speculation that the owner, though claiming to be a Japanese aristocrat, might possibly actually have been an immigrant. [16]
Introduction of equine culture to Japan
The cavalry wore armour, carried swords and other weapons, and used advanced military methods like those of north-east Asia. Evidence of these advances is seen in Haniwa(埴輪), "clay ring" placed on and around the tomb mounds of the ruling elite. The most important of the haniwa were found in southern Honshū—especially the Kinai region around Nara—and northern Kyūshū. Haniwa grave offerings were made in numerous forms, such as horses, chickens, birds, fans, fish, houses, weapons, shields, sunshades, pillows, and male and female humans. Another funerary piece, the magatama, became one of the symbols of the power of the imperial house. Much of the material culture of the Kofun period is barely distinguishable from that of the contemporaneous southern Korean peninsula, demonstrating that at this time Japan was in close political and economic contact with continental Asia (especially with the southern dynasties of China) through Korea. Indeed, bronze mirrors cast from the same mould have been found on both sides of the Tsushima Strait.Irrigation, sericulture, and weaving were also brought to Japan by China and Korean immigrants who are mentioned in the ancient Japanese histories. For instance, the Hata clan, of Chinese origin, introduced sericulture.
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Chinese chronicles make note that the horse was absent on the islands of Japan and they are first noted in the chronicles during the reign of Nintoku, most likely brought by China and Korean immigrants. The horse is one of the treasures presented when the king of Silla surrenders to Empress Jingū in the mythological record of Nihon Shoki.[17] This is inconsistent because there is no evidence of this in Silla and the king who was suppose to have surrendered was from the 5th century which would make Empress Jingu 200 years old. the Nihon Shoki states that Father of Empress Jingu is Emperor Kaika's grandchild, and her mother is Katuragi clan. [18],In addition, the Nihon Shoki states that a Korean from Silla, Amenohiboko, was the ancestor to Jingu]][13][14][15] so both the Nihon Shoki, and the Chinese chronicles relating to Japan is difficult to interpret. In addition, there is no evidence of Japanese war with Korea or any Japanese presence in Korea at this time[6][7] and the Japanese did not have actual knowledge about horses until well after this time.[6][7] Due to these problems nothing can be concluded other than horses were imported to Japan.
Towards Asuka period
The Kofun period gave way to the Asuka period in mid-6th century AD by the introduction of Buddhism. The religion was officially introduced at the year 538, and this year is traditionally set for the epoch of the new period. Also, after the reunification of China by Sui Dynasty later in this century, Japan was deeply influenced by Chinese culture and consequently entered into a new cultural era.
Relations between the Yamato court and the Korean kingdoms
The relationship between the two courts is difficult to discern. The Nihon Shoki which was written more than 500 years later have various quotes that are impossible to verify. The Baekje Annals and the Annals of Silla are fragmented do to the loss over time. The Chinese chronicles like the Book of Song and Book of Sui also have volumes missing and were filled in 100s of years later making it unreliable. The Gwanggaeto Stele can be translated in 4 different ways depending on where you punctuate the sentence and how you fill in the missing characters. In the end historians are unable to make any conclusions.
For more information please refer to the books listed below.
Japan restricting access to Gosashi tomb
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In 1976 Japan stopped all foreign archeologist from studying the Gosashi tomb which is suppose to be the resting place of Emperor Jingu. Prior to 1976 foreigners did have access. Recently in 2008, Japan has allowed controlled limited access to foreign archeologists, but the international community still has many unanswered questions. National geographics wrote Japan "has kept access to the tombs restricted, prompting rumors that officials fear excavation would reveal bloodline links between the "pure" imperial family and Korea"[19] Experts still hope Japan will be more forthright in the future and see this limited access as the first step in the right direction.[20]
See also
list of reference books
- From Paekche of Korea and the origin of Yamato Japan
- A History of the Early Korean Kingdom of Paekche, together with an annotated translation of The Paekche Annals of the Samguk sagi
- Korea and Japan in East Asian History
- Book of Song
- Nihon Shoki
- Gwanggaeto Stele
Notes
- ^ Farris (1998:7)
- ^ Keally, Charles T. (2009-04-29). "Kofun Culture". Retrieved 2009-05-30.
- ^ a b c Yoshii, Hideo (unknown). "Keyhole-shaped tombs in Korean Peninsula" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-05-30.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "Korea, 1-500 A.D. in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". Metropolitan Museam of Art. 2000. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
- ^ . ISBN 0700704647, 9780700704644 http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=e7pyBEWioLsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Korea:+a+historical+and+cultural+dictionary&as_brr=3#PPA474,M1.
{{cite web}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help); Missing or empty|title=(help); Unknown parameter|Author=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|Publisher=ignored (|publisher=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|Title=ignored (|title=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c Lee (1997:31-35)
- ^ a b c d Kōzō (1997:308-310) Cite error: The named reference "Kōzō" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ The Hankyoreh 2001.9.6[1](in korean)
- ^ Yoshida (1997:74-78)
- ^ a b Saeki (1981)
- ^ "Nihon no myōji 7000 ketsu seishi ruibetsu taikan Hata uji 日本の苗字7000傑 姓氏類別大観 秦氏". Retrieved 2006-05-31.
- ^ "Nihon no myōji 7000 ketsu seishi ruibetsu taikan Takamuko uji 日本の苗字7000傑 姓氏類別大観 高向氏". Retrieved 2006-10-15.
- ^ a b Kurano (1958:254-257)
- ^ a b Yamaguchi (1997:274-278)
- ^ a b Sakamoto (1967:260-261)
- ^ Seeley (2000:19-23)
- ^ Sakamoto (1967:338-339)
- ^ Nihon Shoki Vol.9 "気長足姫尊。稚日本根子彦大日日天皇之曾孫。気長宿禰王之女也。母曰葛城高顙媛。"
- ^ http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/04/080428-ancient-tomb.html
- ^ http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/04/080428-ancient-tomb.html
References
- Bogucki, Peter (1999). The Origins of Human Society. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-5771-8112-3.
- Farris, William Wayne (1998). Sacred texts and buried treasures : issues in the historical archaeology of ancient Japan. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-8248-1966-7.
- Imamura, Keiji (1996). Prehistoric Japan: New Perspectives on Insular East Asia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1852-0.
- Kōzō, Yamamura (1997). The Cambridge history of Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22354-7.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Lee, Kenneth B (1997). Korea and East Asia : the story of a Phoenix. Praeger. ISBN 0-2759-5823-X.
- Kurano, Kenji (1958). Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei 1: Kojiki, Norito. Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-0006-0001-X.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Saeki, Arikiyo (1981). Shinsen Shōjiroku no Kenkyū (Honbun hen) (in Japanese). Yoshikawa Kōbunkan. ISBN 4-6420-2109-4.
- Sakamoto, Tarō (1967). Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei 67: Nihon Shoki. Vol. 1. Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-0006-0067-2.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Seeley, Christopher (2000). A history of writing in Japan. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-8248-2217-X.
- Stearns, Peter N. (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-3956-5237-5.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Yamaguchi, Yoshinori (1997). Shinpen Nihon Koten Bungaku Zenshū 1: Kojiki. Shōgakukan. ISBN 4-09-658001-5.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Yoshida, Takashi (1997). Nihon no tanjō (in Japanese). Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-0043-0510-1.
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This period is part of the Yamato period of Japanese History.
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