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Discrimination against atheists

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Discrimination against atheists includes the persecution and discrimination faced by atheists and those labelled as atheists in the past and in the current era. Differing definitions of atheism historically and culturally mean that those discriminated against might not be considered truly atheist by modern Western standards. In constitutional democracies, legal discrimination against atheists is uncommon, but some atheists and atheist groups, particularly those in the United States, have protested laws, regulations and institutions that they view as being discriminatory. In some Islamic countries, atheists face discrimination including lack of legal status.

Ancient times

Historians including Lucien Febvre agree that atheism in its modern sense did not exist before the end of the seventeenth century.[1][2][3] However, as governmental authority rested on the notion of divine right, it was threatened by those who denied the existence of the local god. Philosophers such as Plato argued that atheism was a danger to society and should be punished as a crime.[4] Those labeled as atheist, which included early Christians and Muslims, were as a result targeted for legal persecution.[4][5]

Early modern times

During the Middle Ages, the term "atheist" was used as an insult and applied to a broad range of people, including those who held opposing theological beliefs, as well as suicides, immoral or self-indulgent people, and even opponents of the belief in witchcraft.[1][6][7] Atheistic beliefs continued to be seen as threatening to order and society by philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas. Lawyer and scholar Thomas More asserted that religious tolerance should be extended to all except those who did not believe in a deity or the immortality of the soul.[4] Even John Locke, a founder of modern notions of religious liberty, argued that atheists (as well as Catholics and Muslims) should not be granted full citizenship rights.[4]

During the Inquisition, several of those accused of atheism and/or blasphemy met gruesome fates. These included a priest Giulio Cesare Vanini who was strangled and burned in 1619 and a Polish nobleman Kazimierz Łyszczyński who was executed in Warsaw,[1][8][9] as well as Etienne Dolet, a Frenchman executed in 1546. Though heralded as atheist martyrs during the nineteenth century, recent scholars hold that the beliefs espoused by Dolet and Vanini are not atheistic in modern terms.[3][10][11]

During the nineteenth century, British atheists, though few in number, were subject to discriminatory practices.[12] Those unwilling to swear Christian oaths during judicial proceedings were unable to give evidence in court to obtain justice until the discrimination was ended by Acts passed in 1869 and 1870.[12] In addition, the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley was expelled from the University of Oxford and denied custody of his two children after publishing a pamphlet on "The Necessity of Atheism".[13] An avowed atheist Charles Bradlaugh was elected member of the British parliament in 1880. He was denied the right to affirm rather than swear his oath of office and was expelled from House, but was reelected several times. He was finally able to take his seat in 1886 when the Speaker of the House permitted the affirmation.[13]

Nazi Germany

Once Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 he declared during negotiations with the Vatican which would lead to the Reichskonkordat: "Secular schools can never be tolerated because such schools have no religious instruction, and a general moral instruction without a religious foundation is built on air; consequently, all character training and religion must be derived from faith ...we need believing people."[14][15] Nevertheless, the concordat "never was observed by the Nazi Party", and the Nazis proceeded[16] to carry out large scale secularization actions against Catholic schools and organizations. [17][18][19][20]

On the 24 of October, Hitler declared that he officially stamped out any atheistic movement in Nazi Germany: "We were convinced that the people need and require this faith. We have therefore undertaken the fight against the atheistic movement, and that not merely with a few theoretical declarations: we have stamped it out." [21]

Modern era

Western countries

Modern theories of constitutional democracy assume that citizens are intellectually and spiritually autonomous and that governments should leave matters of religious belief to individuals and not coerce religious beliefs using sanctions or benefits. The constitutions, human rights conventions and the religious liberty jurisprudence of most constitutional democracies provides legal protection of atheists and agnostics. In addition, freedom of expression provisions and legislation separating church from state also serve to protect the rights of atheists. As a result, open legal discrimination against atheists is not common in most Western countries.[4]

In Europe, atheists are elected to office at high levels without controversy.[22] Some atheist organizations in Europe have expressed concerns regarding issues of separation of church and state, such as administrative fees for leaving the Church charged in Germany,[23] and sermons being organized by the Swedish parliament.[24] Canadian humanist groups have worked to end the saying of prayers during government proceedings, viewing them as discriminatory.[25][26]

Some atheists assert that they are discriminated against in the United States and compare their situation to the discrimination faced by ethnic minorities, LGBT communities and women.[27][28][29] "Americans still feel it's acceptable to discriminate against atheists in ways considered beyond the pale for other groups," asserted Fred Edwords of the American Humanist Association.[30] Other atheists reject these comparisons, arguing that while atheists may face disapproval they have not faced significant oppression or discrimination.[31][32]

In the United States, seven state constitutions officially include religious tests that would effectively prevent atheists from holding public office, and in some cases being a juror/witness, though these have not generally been enforced since the early nineteenth century.[33][34][35] The US Constitution allows for an affirmation instead of an oath in order to accommodate atheists and others in court or seeking to hold public office.[33][36] In 1961, the United States Supreme Court explicitly overturned the Maryland provision in the Torcaso v. Watkins decision, holding that laws requiring "a belief in the existence of God" in order to hold public office violated freedom of religion provided for by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.[33][37][38] This decision is generally understood to also apply to witness oaths.[39]

Several American atheists have used court challenges to assert discrimination against atheists. Michael Newdow challenged inclusion of the phrase "under God" in the United States Pledge of Allegiance on behalf of his daughter, claiming that the phrase was discriminatory against non-theists.[40] He won the case at an initial stage, but the Supreme Court dismissed his claim, ruling that Newdow did not have standing to bring his case, thus disposing of the case without ruling on the constitutionality of the pledge.[41][42] As the Boy Scouts of America does not allow atheists as members, atheist families and the ACLU from the 1990s onwards have launched a series of court cases arguing discrimination against atheists. In response to ACLU lawsuits, the Pentagon in 2004 ended sponsorship of Scouting units,[43][44] and in 2005 BSA agreed to transfer all Scouting units out of government entities such as public schools.[45][46]

Atheists note that few politicians have been willing to identify as non-theists, since until recently such revelations would have been "political suicide",[47][48] and welcomed Representative Pete Stark's 2007 decision to come out as the first openly nontheistic member of Congress.[30] Several polls have shown that about 50 percent of Americans would not vote for a well-qualified atheist for president.[49][50] A 2006 study found that 40% of respondents characterized atheists as a group that did "not at all agree with my vision of American society", and that 48% would not want their child to marry an atheist. In both studies, percentages of disapproval of atheists were above those for Muslims, African-Americans and homosexuals.[51]

Prominent atheists and atheist groups have asserted that discrimination against atheists is illustrated by a statement reportedly made by George H. W. Bush during his campaign for the presidency in 1987.[27][52][53][54] When asked by atheistic journalist Robert Sherman about the equal citizenship and patriotism of American atheists, Bush is reported to have answered "No, I don't know that atheists should be considered as citizens, nor should they be considered patriots. This is one nation under God."[27][54] The accuracy of the quote has been questioned, however, as Sherman did not tape the exchange and no other journalist reported on it.[27]

Islamic countries

Atheists, or those accused of holding atheistic beliefs, may be subject to discrimination and persecution in some Islamic countries. According to popular interpretations of Islam, Muslims are not free to change religion or become an atheist: denying Islam and thus becoming an apostate is traditionally punished by death in men and by life imprisonment in women, though in only three Islamic countries is apostasy currently subject to capital punishment. Since an apostate is any Muslim whose beliefs cast doubt on the Koran or the Sharia, claims of atheism and apostasy have been made against Muslim scholars and political opponents throughout history.[55][56][57]

In Iran, atheists do not have any recognized status, and must declare that they are Muslim, Christian, Jewish or Zoroastrian, in order to claim some legal rights, including applying for entrance to university,[58] or becoming a lawyer.[59] Similarly, Jordan requires atheists to associate themselves with a recognized religion for official identification purposes,[60] and atheists in Indonesia experience official discrimination in the context of registration of births and marriages, and the issuance of identity cards.[61] In Egypt, intellectuals suspected of holding atheistic beliefs have been prosecuted by judicial and religious authorities. Novelist Alaa Hamad was convicted of publishing a book that contained atheistic ideas and apostasy that were considered to threaten national unity and social peace.[62][63] Compulsory religious instruction in Turkish schools is also considered discriminatory towards atheists.[64]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Davidson, Nicholas (1992). "Unbelief and Atheism In Italy". In Michael Hunter; David Wootton (ed.). Atheism from the Reformation to the Enlightenment. Oxford University Press. pp. 55–86. ISBN 9780198227366.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  2. ^ Armstrong, Karen (1994). A History of God: The 4000-year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Random House, Inc. p. 286-87. ISBN 9780345384560.
  3. ^ a b Kelley, Donald R. (2006). Frontiers of History: Historical Inquiry in the Twentieth Century. Yale University Press. p. 115. ISBN 9780300120622.
  4. ^ a b c d e Gey, Steven G. (2007). "Atheism and the Freedom of Religion". In Martin, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 250–253, 260–2. ISBN 9780521842709.
  5. ^ Armstrong, Karen (1994). A History of God: The 4000-year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Random House, Inc. p. 98, 147. ISBN 9780345384560.
  6. ^ Laursen, John Christian (1997). Beyond the Persecuting Society: Religious Toleration Before the Enlightenment. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 142. ISBN 9780812215670. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Armstrong, Karen (1994). A History of God: The 4000-year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Random House, Inc. p. 286-87. ISBN 9780345384560.
  8. ^ Brooke, John Hedley (2005). Heterodoxy in Early Modern Science and Religion. Maclean, Ian. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199268979.
  9. ^ Kłoczowski, Jerzy (2000). A History of Polish Christianity. Cambridge University Press. p. 155. ISBN 9780521364294.
  10. ^ Onfray, Michel (2007). Atheist manifesto: the case against Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Leggatt, Jeremy (translator). Arcade Publishing. p. 24. ISBN 9781559708203.
  11. ^ Chadwick, Owen (2003). The Early Reformation on the Continent By. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199265787.
  12. ^ a b Larson, Timothy (2003). "Victorian England". In Cookson, Catharine (ed.). Encyclopedia of religious freedom. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94181-4.
  13. ^ a b Gey, Steven G. (2007). "Atheism and the Freedom of Religion". In Martin, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 253–255. ISBN 9780521842709.
  14. ^ {Adolf Hitler, April 26, 1933, speech made during negotiations leading to the Nazi-Vatican Concordant} http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/quotes_hitler.html
  15. ^ [The Nazi Hydra in America http://books.google.com/books?id=vh7sx2xtjGEC&pg=PA201]
  16. ^ Second Day: Wednesday, 21st November, 1945. (1946). In Trial of the German Major War Criminals: Vol. 1. (p. 61). London: His Majesty's Stationery Office. Retrieved July 4, 2009, from Nizkor Project Web site: http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/tgmwc-01/tgmwc-01-02-04.html "A most intense drive was directed against the Roman Catholic Church. After a strategic Concordat with the Holy See, signed in July, 1933, in Rome, which never was observed by the Nazi Party, a long and persistent persecution of the Catholic Church, its priesthood and its members, was carried out. Church Schools and educational institutions were suppressed or subjected to requirements of Nazi teaching inconsistent with the Christian faith. The property of the Church was confiscated and inspired vandalism directed against the Church property was left unpunished. Religious instruction was impeded and the exercise of religion made difficult. Priests and bishops were laid upon, riots were stimulated to harass them, and many were sent to concentration camps."
  17. ^ Germany: Cross & swastika. (1937, June 28). Time. Retrieved July 4, 2009, from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,788078,00.html "Last week on the Führer's orders Bavarian Minister of Interior Adolf Wagner closed every Catholic public school in Bavaria, fired 670 teachers, secularized 966 schools. This was in flagrant violation of the Nazi Concordat with the Vatican"
  18. ^ Thirty-Fifth Day: Wednesday, January 16th, 1946. (1946). In Trial of the German Major War Criminals (Vol. 1, p. 301). London: His Majesty's Stationery Office. Retrieved July 4, 2009, from Nizkor Project Web site: http://ftp.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/tgmwc-04/tgmwc-04-35-03.shtml "The Tribunal will recall that this was a letter from Bormann's office to the defendant Rosenberg, dated 25th April, 1941, in which Bormann declared that he had achieved progressive success in reducing and abolishing religious services in schools, and in replacing Christian prayers with National Socialist mottoes and rituals. In this letter, Bormann also proposed a Nazified morning service in the schools, in place of the existing confession and morning service."
  19. ^ Twenty-Ninth Day: Tuesday, January 8th, 1946. (1946). In Trial of the German Major War Criminals (Vol. 4, p. 50). London: His Majesty's Stationery Office. Retrieved July 4, 2009, from Nizkor Project Web site: http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/tgmwc-04/tgmwc-04-29-02.shtml "...Likewise in the matter of education and religious instruction of youth no attention was paid in the 'Warthegau' to the rights of the Catholic Church. All the Catholic schools were suppressed."
  20. ^ Twenty-Ninth Day: Tuesday, January 8th, 1946. (1946). In Trial of the German Major War Criminals (Vol. 4, p. 51-52). London: His Majesty's Stationery Office. Retrieved July 4, 2009, from Nizkor Project Web site: http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/tgmwc-04/tgmwc-04-29-02.shtml "Without pausing to describe the treatment meted out in many cases to the clergy...the suppression even of associations and publications of simply and exclusively religious character, the closing of the Catholic secondary and higher schools and of the Catholic University of Lublin, let it suffice to recall two series of specially grave measures: those which affect the seminaries and those which weigh on the Episcopate. When the buildings of the various seminaries had been completely or in part occupied, the intention for some time (November,1940-February,1941) was to reduce these institutions for the training of priests to two - those of Cracow and Sandomir; then the others were permitted to reopen, but only on condition that no new students were admitted, which in practice inevitably means that all these institutions will soon be closed."
  21. ^ The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, April 1922-August 1939 By Adolf Hitler, Norman Hepburn Baynes, Royal Institute of International Affairs Published by H. Fertig, 1969. Page 378.
  22. ^ Hartmann, René (March 2008). ""Most American secularists have few expectations..." An Interview with AAI president Stuart Bechman". MIZ Magazine. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
  23. ^ "Fee for leaving church is brought before European Court of Human Rights". International League of Non-religious and Atheists (IBKA). Retrieved 2009-03-14. {{cite web}}: Text "I" ignored (help)
  24. ^ "Anmälan till JO - Riksdagens ombudsmän". www.jo.se. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
  25. ^ "No More Prayers in Legislature". www.humanistcanada.com. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
  26. ^ Hurst, Lynda (May 09, 2008). "Stirring up yet another religious storm". Toronto Star. Retrieved 2009-03-14. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ a b c d Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 43–46. ISBN 9780618680009.
  28. ^ Harris, Sam (December 24, 2006). "10 myths -- and 10 truths -- about atheism". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  29. ^ Downey, Margaret (2004). "Discrimination against atheists: the facts". Free Inquiry. 24 (4): 41–43. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  30. ^ a b "Humanists Praise Pete Stark for "Coming Out" as a Nontheist". American Humanist. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
  31. ^ Thornton, Paul (April 18, 2007). "Disliked, not oppressed I may be a reviled atheist, but that doesn't mean I can claim equal victimhood with truly repressed minorities". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  32. ^ Grothe, D.J. "Atheism Is Not a Civil Rights Issue". Free Inquiry. 24 (2). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ a b c West, Ellis M. (2006). "Religious Tests of Office-Holding". In Finkelman, Paul (ed.). Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. CRC Press. pp. 1314–5.
  34. ^ Giacalone, Robert A (2005). Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 9780765617439. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Urofsky, Melvin I. (2002). Religious Freedom: Rights and Liberties Under the Law. ABC-CLIO. pp. 39–40. ISBN 9781576073124.
  36. ^ Lampman, Jane (December 07, 2006). "At swearing in, congressman wants to carry Koran. Outrage ensue". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2009-03-01. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  37. ^ Douglas, Davison M. (2006). "Belief-Action Distinction in Free Exercise Clause History". In Finkelman, Paul (ed.). Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. CRC Press. p. 119.
  38. ^ Belknap, Michal R. (2005). The Supreme Court Under Earl Warren, 1953-1969. Univ of South Carolina Press. ISBN 9781570035630.
  39. ^ Friedman, Dan (2005). The Maryland State Constitution: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 44. ISBN 9780313320446.
  40. ^ Bishop, Ronald (2007). Taking on the Pledge of Allegiance: The News Media and Michael Newdow's Constitutional Challenge. SUNY Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 9780791471814.
  41. ^ "US to keep 'under God' pledge". BBC News. 14 June, 2004. Retrieved 2009-03-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ^ Mintz, Howard (June 15, 2004). "U.S. Supreme Court Dismisses Pledge Challenge". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
  43. ^ Winkler v. Chicago School Reform Board
  44. ^ Department of Defense settles part of litigation challenging its involvement with the Boy Scouts of America
  45. ^ "National Boy Scout Organization Agrees to End All Local Government Direct Sponsorship of Troops and Packs". American Civil Liberties Union of Illinois. Retrieved 2006-03-02.
  46. ^ "Boy Scouts Jamboree to Stay at Army Base". Washington Times. Archived from the original on 2006-04-19. Retrieved 2006-03-02.
  47. ^ Marinucci, Carla. "Stark's atheist views break political taboo". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  48. ^ California Lawmaker Becomes Highest-Ranking Official To Say He's a Nonbeliever
  49. ^ "Faith in the System". Mother Jones. 2004. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  50. ^ Page, Susan. "2008 race has the face of a changing America". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
  51. ^ Penny Edgell (2006). "Atheists As "Other": Moral Boundaries and Cultural Membership in American Society" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 71 (2): 218. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  52. ^ Castle, Marie Alena. "Your money and/or your life: mugged by the mythmakers". Atheists For Human Rights. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
  53. ^ O'Hair, Madalyn. "George H. W. Bush: "Atheists Neither Citizens Nor Patriots". American Atheists. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
  54. ^ a b Burns, Saxon (November 30, 2006). "Godless in Tucson; Atheists--the least-trusted group in America--speak out". Tucson Weekly. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
  55. ^ Kamrava, Mehran (2006). The new voices of Islam: reforming politics and modernity : a reader. I.B.Tauris. pp. 123–24. ISBN 9781845112752.
  56. ^ Hamad, Ahmad (1999). "Legal plurality and legitimation of human rights abuses". Legal pluralism in the Arab world. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. p. 221. ISBN 90-411-1105-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  57. ^ Zaki Badawi, M.A. (2003). "Islam". In Cookson, Catharine (ed.). Encyclopedia of religious freedom. New York: Routledge. pp. 204–8. ISBN 0-415-94181-4.
  58. ^ "Discrimination against religious minorities in IRAN" (PDF). Fédération Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l`Homme and the Ligue de Défense des Droits de l’Homme en Iran. August 2003. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
  59. ^ "Iran: A legal system that fails to protect freedom of expression and association". Amnesty International. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
  60. ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2008-Jordan". US of Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
  61. ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2007-Indonesia". US of Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
  62. ^ Boyle, Kevin (1997). Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report. Routledge. p. 30. ISBN 9780415159784. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  63. ^ Al-Boray, Nagad (1999). "Egypt". Secrecy and Liberty: National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information (International Studies in Human Rights). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 90-411-1191-3.
  64. ^ "A Quest for Equality: Minorities in Turkey". Minority Rights Group International. 2007. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
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