Historicity of King Arthur

The historical basis of King Arthur is a source of considerable debate among historians. King Arthur first appears as a legendary king of the Britons in 9th century sources, more than three centuries after his supposed floruit in 5th to early 6th century Sub-Roman Britain. The king Arthur of Arthurian legend as it develops from the 12th century is detached from a possible historical character, and there is no consensus as to such a possible identity.

Historical context

Further information: Sub-Roman Britain, Wales in the Early Middle Ages, and Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain

Geoffrey of Monmouth's list of kings of the Britons places Arthur and Uther Pendragon in sequence between Aurelius Ambrosius and Constantine III, all of them Romano-British rulers placed in the Sub-Roman period of the 5th to 6th century. The search for a historical ruler corresponding to Arthur must thus focus on this period, later than the completion of Roman withdrawal in 410 but earlier than the historical kings of the Britons recorded from the mid 6th century.

During this period, dated to c. 446, a message is recorded by Gildas in his De Excidio Britanniae, and later Bede, known as The Groans of the Britons, a last-ditch plea for assistance against barbarian incursions to Aëtius, military leader of the Western Roman Empire who spent most of the 440s fighting insurgents in Gaul and Hispania. It describes a people in extreme danger and was an attempt to persuade the late Western Roman Empire to send troops across the English Channel to help defend its former subjects from the Saxons. The collapsing Roman Empire had few military resources to spare during the period referred to as the Decline of the Roman Empire and, as is briefly described here, the record is ambiguous on what was the response to the appeal, if any. It is in this context of the incipient Anglo-Saxon invasion in the mid to late 5th century that the later legends of the "Matter of Britain" place Arthur.

Battle of Badon

A variety of sources name Arthur as the victor of the Battle of Mount Badon, at which the Saxons were routed and their invasions halted for many years. The battle itself is discussed in Gildas' De Excidio Britanniae, and historians regard it as a probable historical event. However, Gildas does not name Arthur or any other leader of the battle, though he does discuss Aurelius Ambrosius as a great scourge of the Saxons immediately prior. Badon appears in several other texts, but Arthur is not associated with it until the Historia Brittonum of the 9th century. Other accounts associating Arthur with Badon, such as the Annales Cambriae and Geoffrey of Monmouth's influential Historia Regum Britanniae, can be shown to derive directly or indirectly from the Historia Brittonum]].

Sarmatian hypothesis

In 1978, C. Scott Littleton and Ann C. Thomas expanded on the ideas of Vasily Abaev and Georges Dumezil and published their theory of a connection between the Sarmatian members of the Roman cavalry and the history and later legend of King Arthur. According to this theory, cavalry units left behind in the Roman departure from Britain during the early 5th century became the nucleus of an elite in Dark Age Britain which still preserved elements of Sarmatian mythology and culture.

The name "Arthur"

Main article: Arthur

The word arth is modern Welsh for "bear", and among Continental Celts (although not in Britain) there were several bear gods named Artos or Artio. Also, artur (Welsh) and arturus (Latin) meant "bear-man".

John Morris argues that the appearance of the name Arthur, as applied to the Scottish, Welsh and Pennine "Athurs", and the lack of the name at any time earlier, suggests that in the early sixth century the name became popular amongst the indigenous British for a short time. He proposes that all of these occurrences were due to the importance of another Arthur, who may have ruled temporarily as Emperor of Britain. He demonstrates on the basis of archaeological findings that after a period of Saxon advance, it was halted and surrounded by Celto-Roman finds, before resuming again in the 570s. Morris also suggests that the Roman Camulodunum, modern Colchester, and capital of the Roman province of Britannia, is the origin of the name "Camelot".

Early sources

The earliest reference to king Arthur that can be dated confidently is the 9th century Historia Brittonum, usually attributed to Nennius, a Welsh ecclesiastic who was probably active in the early ninth century. Nennius lists a dozen battles fought by Arthur, and gives him the title of "dux bellorum", which can be translated as "war commander". Nennius also says that Arthur fought "alongside the kings of the Britons", rather than saying that Arthur was himself a king. One of the battles Nennius lists appears to be the same as a great British victory mentioned by Gildas in an earlier history, the battle of Mons Badonicus, though Gildas does not give the name Arthur. Gildas in his De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (or On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain) does mention a British king Cuneglasus who had been "charioteer to the bear"; the Brythonic word for bear was "Art".

There are a number of mentions of a legendary hero called Arthur in early Welsh and Breton poetry. These sources are preserved in High Medieval manuscripts, and cannot be dated with accuracy. They are mostly placed in the 9th to 10th century, although some authors make them as early as the 7th. The earliest of these would appear to be the Old Welsh poem, Y Gododdin, preserved in an 11th century manuscript. It refers to a warrior who "glutted black ravens [i.e., killed many men] on the rampart of the stronghold, although he was no Arthur".

The Welsh poem 'Llongborth', traditionally attributed to Llywarch Hen, describes a battle at a port-settlement and mentions Arthur in passing; it also refers to him as "emperor". The poem is a praise-poem and elegy for a king called Geraint (Gerontius), who is often identified with Geraint of Dumnonia. The relevant verse from the poem is: "In Llongborth I saw Arthur's Heroes who cut with steel. The Emperor, ruler of our labour."

The poem is found in The Black Book of Carmarthen, compiled around 1250, from earlier documents. Y Gododdin was similarly copied at much the same time. The two poems differ in the relative archaic quality of their language, that of Gododdin being the older in form. However, this could merely reflect differences in the date of the last revision of the language within the two poems. The language would have had to have been revised for the poems to remain comprehensible.

The 10th century Annales Cambriae give the date of Mons Badonicus as 516, and Arthur's death as occurring in 537 at Camlann. These annals survive in a version dating from the tenth century. All other sources relating to Arthur by name are later than these; that is, they were written at least four hundred years later than the events to which they refer.

The Legenda Sancti Goeznovii, a hagiography of the Breton saint Goeznovius dated to 1019, includes a brief segment dealing with Arthur and Vortigern. The Legenda is important for providing an early historical narrative of Arthur that is independent of Geoffrey of Monmouth's highly legendary Historia Regum Britanniae.

5th century candidates

Sarmatian hypothesis

In 1978, C. Scott Littleton and Ann C. Thomas expanded on the ideas of Vasily Abaev and Georges Dumezil and published their theory of a connection between the Sarmatian people and the history and later legend of King Arthur. The Alano-Sarmatians were steppe nomads from what is now southern Ukraine, who fought from horseback with a kontus ('lance'), longsword and bow and carried a shield with a tamga marking, similar to heraldry. They wore scale armour and conical helms, and were known in the 2nd century for their skill as heavy cavalry. In 175, Marcus Aurelius, after defeating the Sarmatian Iazyges tribe during the Marcomannic Wars, forcibly hired 8,000 Sarmatians into Roman service. 5,500 of these recruits were sent to the northern borders of Britain. These men probably settled around their base in modern-day Lancashire, where their descendants were still documented as a "troop of Sarmatian veterans" in 428.

The culture of the Sarmatians is also relevant to the legends of Arthur. Apart from their skill as armoured knights, they held great, near religious, fondness for their swords — their tribal worship was directed at a sword sticking up from the ground, similar to the Sword in the Stone motif. They carried standards in the form of dragons, a symbol also used by Arthur and his father Uther Pendragon.

Proponents of the 'Sarmatian connection' theory also look to the legends of the Sarmatians' descendants for evidence. The Ossetians, an Iranian people from Ossetia, a country in the Caucasus, speak the Ossetic language, the only Sarmatian language still spoken. Arthur means "solar fire" in Ossetic, while London means "standing water." The Ossetian Nart sagas, indigenous epics celebrating the exploits of an ancient tribe of heroes, contain a number of interesting parallels to the Arthurian legends. First, the life of the Nart warrior Batraz is tied to his sword, which must be thrown into the sea at his death. When the wounded Batraz asks his last surviving comrade to do the task for him, his companion tries to fool him twice before finally hurling the weapon into the sea. This is very similar to the tale of Arthur's wondrous sword Excalibur which had to be returned to the Lady of the Lake at his death by his last surviving knight, Bedivere. Like Batraz's friend, Bedivere is reluctant to lose such a wonderful sword and lies to his master twice before finally assenting. Additionally, the Nart heroes, Soslan and Sosryko, collect the beards of vanquished enemies to trim their cloaks, which is the practice of Arthur's enemy Rience. Like Rience, Soslan has one last beard to obtain before his cloak is complete. Two other similar motifs are the Cup of the Narts ("Nartyamonga"), which appeared at feasts, delivered to each person what he liked best to eat, and which was kept by the bravest of the Narts ("Knights"); and the magical woman, dressed in white, associated with water, who helps the hero acquire his sword, similar to the Arthurian Lady of the Lake.

Riothamus

Riothamus (aka Rigothamus or Riotimus, apparently meaning Highest King) was a historical figure whom ancient sources list as "a king of the Britons". He lived in the late 5th century, and most of the stories about him were recorded in the Byzantine historian Jordanes' The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, written in the mid-6th century, only about 80 years after his presumed death.

Circa 460, the Roman diplomat and bishop Sidonius Apollinaris sent a letter to Riothamus, asking his help to quell unrest among the Brettones, British colonists living in Armorica. This letter still survives.

In the year 470, the Western Emperor Anthemius began a campaign against Euric, king of the Visigoths who were invading Gaul. Anthemius requested help from Riothamus, and Jordanes writes that he crossed the ocean into Gaul with 12,000 warriors. The location of Riothamus’s army was betrayed to the Visigoths by the jealous Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and Euric defeated him in a battle in Burgundy. Riothamus was last seen retreating near a town called Avallon.

Geoffrey Ashe points out that, as above, Arthur is said by the early sources to have crossed into Gaul twice, once to help a Roman emperor and once to subdue a civil war. Assuming that Riothamus was a king in Britain as well as Armorica, he did both. Arthur is also said to have been betrayed by one of his advisors, and Riothamus was betrayed by one of his supposed allies. Finally, it is well known how King Arthur was carried off to Avalon (which Geoffrey of Monmouth spells "Avallon") before he died; Riothamus, escaping death, was last known to have been in the vicinity of a town called Avallon.

It is unknown whether Riothamus was a king in Britain, in Ireland or of Armorica; as Armorica was a British colony and Jordanes writes that Riothamus "crossed the ocean", it is possible both are correct. The name Riothamus may possibly mean "high king", and so may just have been a title, perhaps borne by someone named Artorius or Arthur. On the other hand, the Irish "The Death of Niall of the Nine Hostages" claims that Niall of the Nine Hostages, Riothamus (High King) of Ireland, was campaigning in Gaul at this time, possibly dying about 455 in a campaign that went as far as the Alps. "All traditions agree that he died outside of Ireland. According to legend his followers carried his body back to Ireland, fighting seven battles along the way, and whenever they carried Niall's body before them they were unbeatable." The succeeding High King, Feradach Dathí, also known as Nath Í, son of Fiachrae, son of Eochaid Mugmedon, was also said to have made foreign conquests in Gaul at about this time, and died after being struck by lightning in the Alps. However, the Irish sources are probably a Medieval or Early Modern fabrication, and there is no evidence that there was an Irish High King until some 400 years later.

Ambrosius Aurelianus

Ambrosius Aurelianus (also sometimes referred to as Aurelius Ambrosius) was a powerful Romano-British leader in Britain. He was renowned for his campaigns against the Saxons, and there is some speculation that he may have commanded the British forces at the Battle of Badon Hill. At any rate, the battle was a clear continuation of his efforts.

According to Gildas (an early British historian and priest who may have been born during Aurelianus’ lifetime) in his sermon, On the Ruin of Britain, following a massive Saxon invasion, Aurelianus was the only person who stayed calm, despite the fact that his parents and most other Roman settlers had been killed in the attacks. Subsequently, Aurelianus became leader of the remaining British (according to the Major Chronicle Annals, he rose to power in 479), organized them, and led them in their first victory against the Saxons, although subsequent battles went both ways. Gildas also writes that Aurelianus’ parents "wore the purple", and thus were apparently descended from Roman emperors. The Aurelii were a noted Roman senatorial family, and it is possible that Ambrosius was descended from them.

The Battle of Badon Hill, depending on varying sources and archeological evidence, was fought sometime between 491 and 516 (Gildas, born in 494 or 516, writes that the battle took place at the year of his birth) with most scholars accepting a date around 500. The location of the battle is thought to have been in southwest England, perhaps near the town of Bath (called Badon by the Saxons) or the nearby Solsbury Hill, where an ancient hill fort existed. However, some believe that Badon Hill is actually somewhere to the north, in or near modern Scotland.

Badon Hill was fought between the British and the invading Saxons, believed to have been the South Saxons under their Bretanwealda (Lord of Britain, also spelled Bretwalda) Aelle, reigned 477-514. This title, used by the Saxons, is an odd one as it may be etymologically related to the Welsh Brythonic 'Gwledig' which some interpret as meaning 'Emperor', applied to a number of British rulers such as Cunedda. The Saxons were utterly defeated by the British (it is theorized that Aelle may have died in the battle), and did not again attack the Celts until 571; even by the 590s the Celts were still inflicting large defeats on the Saxon kingdoms, leaving a final "golden age" for Celtic civilization in Britain.

Gildas fails to name the commander at Badon but he refers to one of his contemporary "fetter kings" as having been "charioteer to the bear". According to the Brythonic bard Taliesin, who lived approximately 534-599, the British commander at Badon was the "chief giver of feasts" (supreme commander, perhaps related to dux) Arthur, to whom the victory is attributed in all later accounts. Owing to a possible mistranslation of a word from Gildas, describing Aurelianus as either the "ancestor" or the "grandfather" of his descendants of Gildas’ generation, it is possible that Aurelianus lived in the generation before the Battle of Badon.

Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain also states that Arthur led the forces at Badon; on the other hand, Geoffrey is notoriously unreliable and much of what he writes is incompatible with factual history. However, Geoffrey makes Aurelianus a king of Britain, an older brother of Uther Pendragon, the father of King Arthur, thus relating Aurelianus and Arthur. He also states that Aurelianus was the son of the usurper emperor Constantine III, although it is extremely unlikely to have actually been true.

6th century candidates

Arthnou

Arthnou was an inhabitant of 6th century Tintagel. He is known only from archaeology. A piece of slate bearing his name, and since dubbed the 'Arthur stone', was discovered during excavations of the 6th century layers under Tintagel Castle. It was apparently a practice inscription for a dedicatory plaque within the structure of a building or other edifice. The Latin inscription has been translated by Charles Thomas to read "Artognou, father of a descendant of Coll, has had this built". Artognou was the primitive Brythonic form of a name that would be pronounced Arthnou, meaning something akin to "bear-like". The prefix certainly links it to the 'Arthur' family of names. From the same area, pieces of expensive 6th century Mediterranean pottery have been excavated, showing that this high-status site was controlled by a rich and powerful noble with trade links with distant civilizations. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth and subsequent medieval writers, King Arthur was conceived at Tintagel. He implies that Arthur is a distant descendant of Coel Hen, whose name could be spelled Coll.

Athrwys ap Meurig

Historians Baram Blackett and Alan Wilson have re-interpreted Old Welsh manuscripts and other evidence to suggest that Arthur was Athrwys ap Meurig, possibly a king of Glamorgan and Gwent, and have published some seven books on the subject. Their investigations have led to the discovery of what they believe to be two Arthurian artifacts of great importance, both of which have been independently examined and tested by experts. The first, discovered in 1983, is the burial stone of Athrwys ap Meurig, which reads, "Rex Artorius, Fili Mavricius". The other, an electrum cross weighing some two-and-a-half pounds, discovered in 1990, has been tested three times, contains 79% silver and reads "Pro Anima Artorius" or "for the Soul of Arthur". Chris Barber and David Pykitt have identified Arthur as the same man by similar means. However, they go on to suggest that he emigrated to Brittany in old age and become known as Saint Armel. Most scholars who have examined the names Athrwys and Arthur have rejected the idea of any similarity and suggested that Iolo Morgannwg's various spellings of the name Athrwys (on one page writing it as Arthur) led to later confusion.

Owain Ddantgwyn, the 'Arthur'

Graham Phillips and Martin Keatman, in their book, King Arthur: The True Story, argue that the name 'Arthur' was a mere title (see below) and that its recipient was Owain Ddantgwyn, an apparent King of Rhôs whom they relocate to Powys. From a passage in Gildas' De Excidio Britanniae, they interpret the description of Owain's son, Cuneglas, to mean that he was the successor at the 'bear's fort', the 'bear' or 'arth' being his father.

Áedán mac Gabráin

Áedán mac Gabráin was a king of the Dál Riata Scotti from c. 574 to c. 608. He was not British, but could have been an influence on Arthur nonetheless; some theories say that Arthurian legends began in the north, and spread south. It has also been said that the Battle of Badon Hill, supposedly commanded by Arthur, was fought in the north.

Aidan was crowned on the island of Iona by St. Columba, the Irish of the White Martydom. Iona was the centre of Scottish Christianity and the place where the first Christian church in Scotland was built, and Columba the missionary priest who brought Christianity to Scotland from Ireland. Thus, Iona and Columba can be compared to the southern Avalon and Joseph of Arimathea, both of which are important in Arthurian legend. Iona and Avalon are even similarly named. Columba is said to have been educated in Ireland by a priest taught by Gildas, the chronicler of the Battle of Badon Hill.

Áedán sought to make Dál Riata independent from the Irish whose support Dál Riata had previously required, and in 603 went to war against the pagan Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. The resulting Battle of Degsastan (whose location, like Badon Hill, is unknown) could have helped fuel the northern Badon Hill theory, although Aidan lost to the Saxons.

In 608, Áedán died and was buried on Iona, similar to how Arthur was supposedly buried on Avalon. One of his sons, Artuir, is also seen as a possible model for the legendary leader (see below).

Artuir mac Áedáin

Though he was the eldest son of Áedán mac Gabráin, Artuir never became king of Dál Riata; his brother Eochaid Buide ruled after his father's death. When Áedán apparently gave up his role and retired to monastic life, Artuir became war leader, though Áedán was officially still king. Thus it was Artuir who led the Scotti of Dál Riata in a war against the Picts, separate from the later war with Northumbria. By this theory, Artur was predominantly active in the region between the Roman walls — the Kingdom of the Gododdin. David F. Caroll argues that Artuir led a loose coalition of the Christian Celts against their pagan invaders — effectively holding them off for about one hundred more years. He was ultimately killed in battle in 582. This is the solution proposed by Michael Wood. In modern times, Artur's name is spelled Artuir.

Many aspects of the King Arthur legend correspond to Artuir’s life. Artuir made use of an old Roman fortress known as Camelon (possibly the later Camelot), and he died in battle near the river Allan , also known as Camallan (possibly Camlann). Like the Arthur of legend he had a sister called Morgan, and was a contemporary of Myrddin (who later came to be called Merlin). In myth, the mortally wounded Arthur was taken to an island called Avalon. In the 6th century there was an island surrounded by three rivers, Allan, Forth and Teith. On the island was a settlement called Invalone. This island was near the site of the real Artuir’s death and may be the inspiration for Avalon. It should also be noted that the earliest mentions of Arthur are in Welsh. The area of Scotland in which Artuir lived and fought (Strathclyde) was Welsh speaking at this time.

However, this Artuir may have lived too late to be "the" Arthur (assuming such a person ever existed), and he may have fought the wrong enemies. The key problem for this theory is that this 'Arthur' was not the only person named "Artur" or some variant of the name in his time. There was also an Arthur King of Elmet, and an Arthur in Pembroke. Moreoever, most of the early accounts state that Arthur's chief enemies were the Saxons, not the Picts, and Áedán fought the Northumbrians after Artur's death. Artuir was part of the generation born after the Battle of Badon Hill, which took place between 491 and 516. Also, Artuir mac Áedán died in battle with the Picts, while Arthur died in battle with Medraut (Mordred) of Lothian, who was not Pictish. While he may not be the original Arthur-figure per se (to repeat, assuming such a person ever existed), his story, like that of the other "Arthurs" may well have contributed to the growing legends.

Roman era candidates

Some theories suggest that Arthur was a historical individual of the Roman era.

Magnus Maximus and other Western Emperors

As the Western Roman Empire crumbled in the 4th and 5th Centuries, a number of ambitious generals in command of provincial armies rebelled and proclaimed themselves emperor. In 383, a leading Roman officer in Britannia, Magnus Maximus (aka Maximianus or Macsen Wledig) proclaimed himself emperor and crossed, with his army, into Gaul. He quickly defeated and killed the Western Emperor Gratian, and for the next five years ruled the Western Empire, until Theodosius I defeated and executed him in 388.

Arthur is also said to have crossed to the continent and fought against Imperial troops. In addition, according to medieval Welsh texts, Arthur is sometimes described as an ymerawdwr (Welsh for "emperor", from the Latin imperator). Maximus himself was from Hispania and could have been born to a family of Celtiberian descent. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, 'Maximianus' was one of the kings of the Britons to precede Arthur. With the name Macsen Wledig, Maximus is featured in a story of the Mabinogion, a collection of Medieval Welsh texts that also feature two stories on Arthur and one on Taliesin.

As the Roman Empire continued to decay, there were numerous generals in Britannia who were 'raised to the purple', if even for a short time. One such was Constantine III, who ruled for four years before being executed; according to Geoffrey, Constantine III was Arthur's grandfather.

Lucius Artorius Castus

Informed by the Sarmatian theory advanced by Littleton and Thomas, Linda A. Malcor in 1999 suggested that the character of King Arthur was ultimately based on one Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman dux of the 2nd century, reviving a suggestion made by Kemp Malone in 1924.

Castus was praefectus of the VI Legion in Britannia and might have (though this is far from certain) led a numerus of Sarmatians, which was based at Ribchester (Bremetennacum) and which campaigned at and north of Hadrian’s Wall.

Castus' alleged military exploits in Britain and Armorica may have been remembered for centuries afterward. This is linked to the original theory of Littleton, Thomas and Malcor which suggests that the folk narratives carried by the Alano-Sarmatians as well as history associated with various groups of Alano-Sarmatians formed the core of the Arthurian tradition (see below).

From 183–185, the Caledonians overran Hadrian’s Wall. It has been suggested that Emperor Commodus sent him to Britannia in the year 181 as commander of the VI Legion and others, and that along with his personal legion, he guarded Hadrian's Wall (the border between Britannia, or Roman England, and Caledonia, or barbarian Scotland) with a contingent of 5,500 Sarmatian heavy cavalry. It is also suggested that Castus’ standard was a large red dragon pennant; auxiliary forces did not use eagle standards. In 185, when his legion collapsed, Castus returned to the northern city of Eboracum, and was then sent by the governor of Britannia to lead cavalry cohorts against an uprising in Armorica (modern Brittany). However, Castus is only known from three inscriptions from Podstrana on the Dalmatian coast; these do not mention command of any other legions (or establish command of VI Victrix — he could have been praefectus castrorum, third-in-command of the legion), provide evidence of command of the Sarmatians, or indicate anything about his standard.

Etymological links can be made tracing the name Arthur to Artorius; it is also true that no other recorded person in Britain, Ireland, or Scotland bears a name similar to Arthur until after Castus’ tour of duty in Britannia was over (however, Arthur is always Latinized into Arthurus, never Artorius, thus suggesting that it was a distinct name). Arthur’s pennant is said to be the Pendragon, a red dragon similar to the modern Welsh flag. In the earliest descriptions of Arthur, he is not a king, but is referred to as a dux bellorum or "commander of war"; as also mentioned above, Castus held the Roman rank of dux.

In the Historia Britonum, written shortly after AD 820, there is a list of twelve battles Arthur is stated to have been victorious in. About three centuries later, Geoffrey of Monmouth in his History of the Kings of Britain, places these twelve battles in the north against barbarians. Seven of these battles have been matched to battles Castus may have fought; but Castus is not definitely known to have fought in any battles. Geoffrey also adds that Arthur fought a civil war, and twice took troops across the sea to Armorica, once to support the Roman emperor and once to deal with his own rebels. Castus’ own legion mutinied, and he was sent to lead cavalry units in northwest Gaul – the location of the region of Armorica – both against rebels and in support of the Roman emperor.

Earlier sources also place Arthur’s headquarters not at Camelot but at Caerleon, the "Fortress of Legions". Eboracum, sometimes referred to as Urbe Legionum or the "City of the Legion", was the headquarters of both Castus and of legions that supported the Roman forces patrolling Hadrian’s Wall.

Critics of the Castus hypothesis would argue that the obscurity surrounding Castus makes this identification unlikely, as there seems to be little reason for him to have become a major legendary figure. No Roman historical source actually mentions him, or his alleged exploits in Britain. Nor is there actually any firm evidence that he ever commanded Sarmatians. Also, the greatest resonance of Arthurian tales with Sarmatian ones occur in very late writings, relatively speaking, such as Malory's Le Morte Darthur (when Arthur and his men were already developed into "knights in shining armor") and none appear in the earliest Welsh legends, such as those in the Mabinogion — which lead some to conclude that Sarmatian influence was limited to the development of the tales instead of historical basis, if at all.

No historical basis

Some modern historians have suggested that Arthur had no historical basis, and was instead a mythological or folklore figure who was historicized over time. These historians point to the lack of hard evidence for a historical Arthur. Arthur is not mentioned in the writings of Gildas, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, or any other surviving manuscript dating between the 5th century and around 820. Later sources that do mention Arthur, such as the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae, contain very little about a historical king or leader named Arthur. Historian Thomas Charles-Edwards noted this lack of evidence, saying that "at this stage of the enquiry, one can only say that there may well have been an historical Arthur [but …] the historian can as yet say nothing of value about him". Recent scholarship has further questioned the reliability of the Historia Britannea and the Annales Cambriae. Historian David Dumville summed up the position that Arthur was not a historical figure, saying, "I think we can dispose of him [Arthur] quite briefly. He owes his place in our history books to a 'no smoke without fire' school of thought ... The fact of the matter is that there is no historical evidence about Arthur; we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books." Scholars who hold this position note the similarities with other mythological figures who became historicized, for instance Kentish totemic horse-gods Hengest and Horsa, who were ascribed a historical role by Bede.

It has also been suggested that Arthur was originally a Celtic or prehistoric demi-god, whose legends were gradually adapted to fit historical fact as a means of keeping the Celtic legends alive after Christianity was introduced. An example would be the sea-god Llyr, who became the legendary King Lear. Arthur's story also bears many similarities to Celtic mythologies, such as the hero's possession of a magical weapon (see Gáe Bulg), the Lady of the Lake having many similarities to Celtic water deities, etc.

Still another theory is that Arthur was a completely legendary person, the hero of Celtic bards meant to inspire and enthrall listeners, similar to the Germanic stories of Beowulf (or, in some stories, Bodvar Biarki). In fact, Beowulf was composed (c. late 8th Century) by Saxon settlers in Britain around the time the first stories of Arthur were emerging, and Arthur and Beowulf share several similarities: both were brave war-leaders who later became king; both carried magical swords; both were betrayed by their men; and both died without an heir. Dragons figure prominently in both stories, and, like Arthur's, Beowulf's name has ursid connections; the name Beowulf, literally "bee-wolf," is a kenning of "bear" (the alternate name for Beowulf, Bodvar Biarki, means "battle bear").

Other Arthurian characters

The Battle of Camlann, the final battle between Arthur and Mordred, is likely to be fictional; however, it is recorded in the Welsh Annals or "Annales Cambriae" (although this is probably a later addition), and several sites in Britain have been associated with it.

As he is recorded in the Annales Cambriae and other early sources, Mordred may have been a real person. The Annales Cambriae for the year 537 puts them at the Battle of Camlann, although it does not state that they fought on opposite sides. Instead, it refers to: "The Strife of Camlann in which Arthur and Medraut (Mordred) perished" (This has led some historians, as well as fiction authors like Mary Stewart, to wonder if the historical Arthur and Mordred could have fought on the same side, against the Saxons).

Morgan le Fay, Arthur's half-sister of legend, was possibly based on the Celtic goddesses Morrigan or Modron. Carroll suggests that Morgan may be a corruption of Maithgen, sister of Artur (see above).

The Fisher King may be based on the legend of Joseph of Arimathea or the Celtic god Avalloc. As a matter of interest, in Celtic legend Avalloc was the father of Modron.

As explained above, the Grail Quest may have been largely influenced by the Sarmatian folklore of Batraz and his Narts. However, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon traditions also are filled with quests by heroes, and in Celtic folklore there are tales of a magical cup with healing powers. These tales undoubtedly were adapted to refer to the Holy Grail as Britain became Christianized.

Bedivere is, along with Arthur and Merlin, one of the oldest characters in Arthurian legend, and thus is more likely to have been a real person than newer additions. He appears in the Mabinogion and is connected with the Welsh Finddu dynasty; his father, Pedrod, may have been the historical Welsh monarch Pedr.

Merlin was the name given to two historical figures, Myrddin Wyllt ("Wild Merlin") and Myrddin Emrys ("Majestic Merlin"), combined by Geoffrey of Monmouth into one. The former was a bard who went mad after his king was killed by two rivals (one of whom was the above-mentioned Pedrod) and went to live in a forest. Merlin may also have been influenced by Taliesin. However, both Merlins and Taliesin all lived in the late 6th Century, after the time of most of the above-listed historical Arthurs.

Vortigern, the usurper king who, according to legend, invited the Saxons to land in Britain as mercenaries before being killed by Uther Pendragon, was a historical person, as were Hengest and Horsa, the Saxon leaders who rebelled against him. Vortigern itself (like Riothamus) apparently means "highest king", and he could possibly have been named something else.

Table

This following table shows the linkage between the “finished product” of Arthurian names, and their mythical and/or factual sources (some confirmed, others hypothesized).

Sources for Arthurian Characters

Legendary Name	Historical Basis	Mythical Basis
Aurelius Ambrosius	Ambrosius Aurelianus	Ambrosius
Arthur	Ambrosius Aurelianus, Riothamus, Lucius Artorius Castus, Artognou, Áedán mac Gabráin, Caradoc Vreichvras, Artoriani	Artio/Artos, Batraz
Bedivere	Bedwyr Bedrydant ap (son of) Pedrod	NA
Fisher King	NA	Avalloc, Joseph of Aramathea, Bendigeidfran
Gawain	King Gwalchmai Of Gododdin	Gwalchmai, Cúchullain
Gorlois	Gwrlais	NA
Gracianus Municeps	Gratianus	NA
The Holy Grail	The Holy Grail	Holy Chalice, cauldron of Bran the Blessed
Kay	Gaius of Caer Goch	NA
Knights of the Round Table	Artoriani, leadership councils, warriors	Narts, heroic companion myths
Lot	Lot Luwddoc, Liot	NA
Macsen Wledig	Magnus Maximus	NA
Mark of Cornwall	Marcus Cunomorus	NA
Merlin	Myrddin Wyllt, Myrddin Emrys, Taliesin	Ambrosius
Mordred	Medraut	Mabon ap Modron, Melwas/Malagrant
Morgan le Fay	Maithgen	Morrigan, Modron, Dea Matrona
Percival	Peredur Arueu Dur	NA
The Round Table	Caerleon amphitheater, Bryn-Rhyd-yr-Arian, Penrith	NA
Tristan	Drustanus	NA
Uriens of Gore	Urien Rheged	NA
Yvain	Owain mab Urien	NA

See also

• Sites and places associated with Arthurian legend
• Roman departure from Britain
• Wales in the Early Middle Ages

References

• Geoffrey Ashe. (1985). The Discovery of King Arthur.
• Mike Ashley. (2005). The Mammoth Book of King Arthur. ISBN 1-84119-249-X
• Barber, Chris & Pykitt, David. (1993). Journey to Avalon.
• Baram Blackett & Alan Wilson. (1986) Artorius Rex Discovered.
• David F. Carroll (1996) Arturius: The Quest for Camelot. ISBN 0-9528410-0-2.
• David N. Dumville. (1977). 'Sub-Roman Britain: History and Legend' in History 62.
• Adrian Gilbert, Baram Blackett & Alan Wilson. (1998). The Holy Kingdom
• Thomas Green (2007). Concepts of Arthur. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-4461-1.
• C. Scott Littleton & Linda A. Malcor. (1994). From Scythia to Camelot.
• C. Scott Littleton & Ann C. Thomas. (1978). 'The Sarmatian Connection: New Light on the Origin of the Arthurian and Holy Grail Legends' in Journal of American Folklore 91.
• Kemp Mallone. (1925). 'Artorius' in Modern Philology 22.
• Graham Phillips & Martin Keatman. (1992). King Arthur: The True Story.
• J.E Russell (2005) "The historical Arthur of Galloway"

External links

• D.F. Carroll, "Arturius: Quest for Camelot"
• P.J.C. Field, "The Historical Arthur: a Bibliography"
• Thomas Green, "The Historicity and Historicisation of Arthur"
• Janos Makkay, "The Sarmatian Connection"
• Victor H. Mair, Review of "From Scythia to Camelot"