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Aisha bint Abu Bakr (612 - 678) (Arabic: عائشة Transliteration: ʿāʾisha, [ʕaːʔɪʃæh]) also transcribed as (A'ishah, Aisyah, Ayesha, A'isha, Aishat, Aishah, or Aisha) was one of Muhammad's wives.[1] In Islamic writings, her name is thus often prefixed by the title "Mother of the Believers" (Arabic: أمّ المؤمنين umm-al-mu'minīn), per the description of Muhammad's wives in the Qur'an.[2][3][4]

According to Sunni beliefs, Aisha had an important role in early Islamic history, both during Muhammad's life and after his death. Regarded by many as his favorite wife, she was an active figure in numerous events and an important witness to many more. Aisha, often known as the first woman of Islam, contributed to the growth, development, and understanding of Islam. Being a role model to a significant amount of others added to her attributions as a consultant regarding Muhammad's prayer and practices, soon introducing herself into a world of politics.[5]

After Muhammad Aisha was readily involved in continuing his messages. She was present through the reigns of at least the first four caliphs. During the time of the third caliph's reign Aisha rebelled. She did not fully approve of his practices on many occasions. After Uthman's death, Aisha wanted to avenge it in the Battle of the Camel. She became readily involved in the battle by giving speeches, and on occasion riding in it. She ended up losing the battle, but her involvement and determination had shown through.[6].

Early life

Aisha was the daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Abu Bakr belonged to the Banu Taym sub-clan of the tribe of Quraysh.[citation needed]

Marriage to Muhammad

Khawlah bint Hakim suggested that Muhammad marry Aisha after the death of Muhammad's first wife (Khadijah bint Khuwaylid), after this, previous agreement regarding marriage of Aisha with Jubayr ibn Mut'im was put aside by common consent.[7] British historian William Montgomery Watt suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr;[7] the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.[8]

According to the traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when she was betrothed to Muhammad and nine when the marriage was consummated.[7][9][10] American historian Denise Spellberg states that "these specific references to the bride's age reinforce Aisha's pre-menarcheal status and, implicitly, her virginity."[9] This issue of her virginity was of great importance to those who supported Aisha's position in the debate of the succession to Muhammad. These supporters considered that as Muhammad's only virgin wife, Aisha was divinely intended for him, and therefore the most credible regarding the debate.[11]

Age at marriage

See also: Criticism of Muhammad § Aisha, and Child marriage

Aisha stayed in her parents' home for several years until she joined Muhammad and the marriage was consummated.[7][9][10][12][13][14] Most of the sources indicate that she was nine years old at the time, with the single exception of al-Tabari, who records that she was ten.[9] The sources do not offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years, but mention that after the wedding, she continued to play with her toys, and that Muhammad entered into the spirit of these games.[15]

The issue of Aisha's age at the time she was married to Muhammad has been of interest since the earliest days of Islam, and references to her age by early historians are frequent. Early Muslims regarded Aisha's youth as demonstrating her virginity and therefore her suitability as a bride of Muhammad . According to Spellberg, historians who supported Aisha's position in the debate of the succession to Muhammad against Shi'a claims considered her youth, and therefore her purity, to be of paramount importance. They thus specifically emphasized it, implying that as Muhammad's only virgin wife, Aisha was divinely intended for him, and therefore the most credible in the debate.[9]

Child marriages such as this were relatively common in Bedouin societies at the time, and remain common in some modern societies worldwide.[16] British scholar Colin Turner suggests that such marriages were not seen as improper in historical context, and that individuals in such societies matured at an earlier age than in the modern West.[16] In modern times, however, the issue of Muhammad marrying and having sexual relations with a girl so young has been used to criticize him, particularly in societies where child sexual abuse and related issues are considered serious crimes.[16]

Status as "most beloved wife"

In Sunni belief, Aisha is described as Muhammad's most beloved wife, and it was in her company that Muhammad reportedly received the most revelations.[17]

Accusation of adultery

In the event Aisha was missing her necklace on a return from an expedition. She left her litter to find it, but got lost and the caravan left without her. She was waiting to be rescued and fell asleep. She was found the next morning by a young nomad named Safwan who brought her back to Medina. Rumors started about infidelity and Muhammad consulted some of his followers, among others Ali, who advised Muhammad that he should divorce Aisha.[18] Usama bin Zayd Bin son of Zayd ibn Harithah defended Aisha's reputation. When questioned declared 'This is all a lie - we know nothing but good of her.' His position as adopted grandson of the Prophet his opinion was listened but was about the same age as Aisha and it would not hold much weight in purpose of a decision. Shortly after this a revelation solved the problem, Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation from God confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses.[19][third-party source needed] These verses also rebuked Aisha's accusers,[20][third-party source needed] whom Muhammad ordered to receive forty lashes.[21][22]

Story of the honey

Soon after the event of the honey which involved Aisha, Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation, in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God.[23]

Some Sunni commentators on the Qur'an sometimes give this story as the "occasion of revelation" for Sura 66,[third-party source needed] which opens with the following verses: "Prophet, why do you prohibit that which God has made lawful for you, in seeking to please your wives? God is forgiving and merciful. God has given you absolution from such oaths."[24]

Death of Muhammad

Aisha did not remarry after Muhammad's death because a passage in the Qur'an forbids any Muslim to marry a widow of Muhammad:[25][third-party source needed]

Nor is it right for you that ye should annoy God's Apostle , or that ye should marry his widows after him at any time. Truly such a thing is in God's sight an enormity.

— Qur'an 33:53

After Muhammad

After a decade of marriage to Muhammad, which ended with his death, Aisha lived fifty more years in and around Medina. Much of her time was spent learning and acquiring knowledge of the Quran, and the Sunnah of Muhammad. Aisha was one of three wives (the other two being Hafsah and Umm Salamah) who memorized the Quran. Like Hafsah, Aisha had her own script of the Quran written after Muhammad's death.[26] During Aisha’s life many prominent customs of Islam, such as veiling and seclusion of women, began.

Appropriately, Aisha should be considered the first woman of Islam.[27]. Aisha’s importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition, and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam. [28] Aisha has been deemed one of the most influential "Mother(s) of the Believer." Specifically after Muhammed's death, Aisha became readily involved in politics and the continuation of Islam. During a time in Islam when women were not expected, or wanted, to contribute outside of the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in war battles, and helped both men and women with understanding the practices of Muhammad.[29] Though Aisha's marriage to Muhammad is an important aspect of her life, her political and cultural influence on early Islam, after Muhammad's death, greatly defined who she was as a person.

Aisha's Father is the First Caliph & Role During Reign of the Second Caliph

From early on, Abu Bakr, Aisha’s father was highly recognized by the prophet. Both Aisha’s mother and father were muhajirun, “emigrants”. In 622 Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina in the Hijra. The muhajirun were those loyal enough to follow, therefore are considered the first group of Muslims to convert to Islam. Since Abu Bakr being involved in the conversion to Islam, he and the Prophet developed a close relationship. Aisha’s genealogy gave her advantages in the Islamic community early on in life. Abu Bakr was not particularly in favor of the marriage between Aisha and the Prophet, in concern that the marriage could cause turmoil between bond that was linked between the two. “You are my brother in religion”, said Muhammad projecting the importance of faith over blood in communal relationships.

After Muhammad's death in 632, the Islamic community was faced with the dilemma of figuring out who would stand in his place. Abu Bakr was appointed by committee as political successor to the Prophet, or the first caliph.[30]. Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his trusted companionship to the prophet and his new found role as father-in-law. Abu Bakr was the first to set the guidelines of the new position of authority.[31]

From then on Aisha gained more special privilege in the Islamic community for being known as both the wife to the late Prophet and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father’s strong dedication to Islam. Abu Bakr was referred to as al-siddiq, “the truthful”, referring to his noble effort of speaking the truth in support of the Prophet’s one night journey to Jerusalem. Being tied to her father gave Aisha the title of al-siddiqa bint al-siddiq, “the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man.” [32]

In 634 Abu Bakr became sick and was unable to recover. While suffering a tragic death he asked Aisha how many pieces of cloth was on Muhammad’s shroud and decided he would want the same amount, 3. Abu Bakr soon passed away and was buried next to Muhammad’s grave.[33]

Prior to his death, Abu Bakr appointed Umar as the second caliph. During Abu Bakr's reign Umar held position as one of his chief advisers and secretary. [34] While Umar was in position of the second caliph, Aisha played the role as a consultant in political matters. [35]

Role During the Reign of the 3rd Caliph and After his Death

After the 2nd caliph died, Umar, set up perameters in order to obtain the rightful 3rd caliph. The third caliph was chosen to be Uthmān, who was liked by Muhammad. He wanted to promote interest in the Umayyads. Aisha had little involvement with Uthmān for the first couple years, but eventually she found a way into the politics of his reign. Many are un-sure of what specifically triggered her eventual opposition towards Uthmān, but a prominent opposition towards him was when Uthmān mistreated Ammar ibn Yasir (companion of the prophet) by beating him. Aisha became enraged and spoke out publicly saying, "How soon indeed you have forgotten the practice (sunnah) of your prophet and these, his hairs, a shirt, and sandal have not yet perished!" (108).[36].

As time continued issues of disposition towards Uthmān continued to arise. Another instance is when the people came to Aisha, after Uthmān ignored the rightful punishment for Walid idn Uqbah (Uthmān's brother). Aisha and Uthmān argued with each other,Uthmān eventually made a comment on why Aisha had come and how she was "ordered to stay at home"(111).[37]. Arising from this comment, was the question of whether Aisha and women still had the ability to be involved in public affairs. The Muslim community became split, "some sided with Uthmān, but others demanded to know who indeed had better right than Aisha in such matters"(111). [38].

The caliphate's reign took a turn for the worst when Egypt was governed by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (Aisha's half brother). Abbott reports that Mohammad ibn Abi Hudhaifah of Egypt, an opposer of Uthmān, forged letters in the "Mother's of the Believers" names to the conspirators against Uthmān. The people cut off Uthmān's water and food supply. When Aisha realized the behavior of the crowd, Abbot notes, Aisha could not believe the crowd "would offer such indignities to a widow of Mohammed"(122). [39]. She is referencing when Safīyah (one of Muhammed's wives) tried to help Uthmān and got taken by the crowd. Ashtar (a rebel) then approached her about killing Uthmān and the letter, and she claimed she would never want to "command the shedding of the blood of the Muslims and the killing of their Imām" (122), she also claimed she did not write the letters.[40]. With the journey to Mecca approaching at this time, she wanted to rid herself of the situation. Uthmān heard of her not wanting to hurt him, and he asked her to stay, this did not persuade Aisha, and she continued on her journey with opposition both towards Uthmān and the Egyptians. [41].

In Medina, Mohammad ibn Abi Bakr broke into Uthmān's house, and eventually Uthmān was murdered. It is not quite sure who murdered Uthmān, but his wife, Nailah, claims it was Mohammad ibn Abī Bakr. Aisha, at this point had been clear of any blame, and was continuing her journey to Mecca. In Mecca, Aisha rallied support against the new Caliph (Ali bin Abi Talib) by placing him with the responsibility for Uthmān's murder.[42]. To Aisha, Uthmān's murder was seen as a moment to replace Alī with a more suitable Caliph such as her close allies. It was during this time that Aisha led into a battle known as Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) against Alī's forces in Medina. It was the Battle of Bassorah that was deemed Islam's foremost understanding of a civil war (fitnah). Although Aisha was dedicated to and fully recognized the importance of following God's commandments, she also was committed to maintaining the "secular character" of the Caliphate.[43]

Battle of Bassorah

Main article: Battle of Bassorah

In 655, Uthman was murdered, which caused the First Fitna.[44]

Professor Leila Ahmed claims that it was during this engagement that Muslims fought Muslims for the first time,[17] in which Aisha was one of the central figures.

Upon arrival back to Mecca, after Uthman's death, Aisha enraged about the murder of him and the election of Ali, gave a speech. She spoke to the people of Mecca "at the sacred spot of Hijr"(131) [45]., questioned to be created by Abraham. She spoke of the death, and how the murderers "shed sacred blood, desecrated the sacred city, seized sacred funds, and profaned the sacred month"(131) [46].. At this point Governor Abd Allah followed in command of Aisha. Others such as Umayyads, others from different provinces, and fugitives from Medina came to support Aisha in her conquests. People also questioned her true feelings towards avenging Uthmans death because of the fact that she opposed his reign for so long. She defended her sincerity throughout her life. [47].

Upon arrival into the caliphate role, Ali seemed to have been a part of the murder of Uthman. He tried to be rid of Uthman's past provincial governors. Many of them fled to Mecca to join in the opposition. When it came time to decide to continue on spreading the word of the opposition, Aisha and her advisers beleived going to Basrah was the best choice so they could obtain more followers. Aisha was unsure of this idea, but was greatly urged to continue on. Abbott reports that over a thousand people followed Aisha, but only one "Mother of the Beleivers" followed en-suit, Hafsah. Aisha's "sisters" traveled with the group till reaching Dhat Irq, where they cried and said goodbye, the day is known as "The Day of Weeping"(138). [48].

The continuation of the journey brought Aisha closer to Basrah, where she received a notice from Umm Salamah urging her not to continue, and that her participation in the battle is not womanly. She did not back down, but rode her camel, it was known to be the best in Arabia. At one point on the journey to Basrah, Aisha becomes scared and unable to want to continue. Her followers managed to have her continue despite her doubts and fears. While there time at Basrah, there is much political happenings occurring. [49].

When the battle occurred Aisha rode out on her camel with Kab ibn Sur. He was killed by an arrow and she was left a lone to command her troops. She would regularly try to give speeches to her followers. Arrows were flying all around her, and many of the warriors came to protect her. Many of her protectors died trying to protect her and her camel, that is why the battle is given the name "Battle of the Camel". Ali "gave orders to hamstring the animal"(161) [50]., this was the moment Aisha realized she had lost. She was taken off the "battle field" and briefly talked with Ali, and was taken by her brother, Mohammed, to take her to a a mansion. Ali and Aisha were accounted to have had a friendly relationship after the battle, with this she backed down from "opposition and effective defiance" (164). [51].

Important Contributions to Islam and her influence on the Islamic People

After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with Muhammad's first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad partook in 10 years of polygamy, possessing nine wives. Muhammad's nine marriages were depicted purely as political unions rather than sexual unions. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsah associated him with two of the highest significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Abu Bakr and Umar, correspondingly.[52] Aisha’s marriage to the Prophet has led to her significance among many within the Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned lady of her time. Being Muhammad’s favorite wife, Aisha occupied a considerable attitude within his life.[53] When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible "...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women."[54] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was discovered to be a renowned source of Hadith due to her qualities of intelligence and memory.[55]. Aishah delivered ideas expressing the Prophets practice (sunna). Aisha expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.[56]

Muhammad became a significantly powerful figure in 627 C.E. of the rapidly expanding Islamic community. Because of this expansion, segregation of his wives were permitted to enforce their sacrosanct. Veiling, which was seen as the most distinctive emblem, was not specifically enjoined upon Muslim women anywhere within the Quaran. During the time of Muhammad's leadership, women were not documented or observed as hijab in Ummah. Other than Muhammad's wives, other women were not required to veil, but others, including the Quaran, believed it to be modest to conceal their bodies in clothing.[57]

After the death of Muhammad, Muslim women believed it was Muslim men, not Islam, that suppressed the rights of women. It was for that reason that Muslim feminists are advocating to return Islam to the envisioned society Muhammad had for his followers. It was from Muhammad that the developed idea that Medina was a society in which he designated Muslim women as spiritual guides, prayed and fought alongside Muslim men, and acted not only as religious leaders but political leaders, which was an act Aisha participated in herself. Muhammad himself was publically rebuked by his wives as well. United prayer gathering including Muslim men and women occurred near Muhammad's house as they were blessed as a "single undivided community" (136).[58]

Aisha played a key role in the emergence of Islam. Not only was she supportive of Muhammad, but she added scholarly intelligence to the development of Islam. Aisha was known for her "...expertise in the Qur'an, shares of inheritance, lawful and unlawful matters, poetry, Arabic literature, Arab history, genealogy, and general medicine"[59] Her intelligence and contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam.[60] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was ascribed as the most reliable source in the teachings of Hadith.[61] Being Muhammad's favorite wife and close with him, soon after his death the Islamic community began consulting Aisha on Muhammad's practices, and she was often used to settle disputes on demeanor and infrequent points of law. Aisha's authentication on Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Quaran allowed for development of the ways in which he prayed and corrected the reading within versus of the Quaran.[62]

Aisha, the mother of the Muslims, was known for establishing the first madrasah for women in her home. Men also attended Aisha's classes, and a curtain simply separated the male and female students.[63] Aisha's scholarly intelligence and motherly figure allowed for important contributions in the emergence of Islam and an important dignitary to the Muslim women.

Aisha's Influence on the Islamic People

Many people came from far and wide to hear Aisha preach her knowledge. She took an active role in social reform in the Islamic culture. She was well known for her influential and understandable methods of teaching. Aisha was regarded by some scholars as one of the most trustworthy narrators of the Hadith. This is understandable, being that she is one of Muhammad’s only wives who was known to have memorized the Revelation. This was Muhammad’s communications or dialogues with their god, Allah. During her life at some point Aisha was given the title Aisha as-Siddiqah, which basically meant “the one who affirms the truth”[64]. She became know for her strength of personality, and also was a leader in many different fields of knowledge including society, politics and war time thinking. It was said that she often regretted becoming involved in war, but by the end of her lifetime she became one of, if not the most respected women of her time.[65]

During Aisha’s entire life she was a strong advocate for the education of Islamic women especially in areas such as law and teachings of Islam. One of her most mentioned and outstanding students was her own nephew named Urwah, who eventually became one of the greatest scholars of his generation. He tells that she was very knowledgeable in things including Islamic law, medicine and also poetry. She was often sought out for advice from companions of the Prophet regarding information on inheritance which would require a great knowledge of the Quran. She was known for her ability to speak clearly, while successfully presenting her points. She was also very well known for her ability to effectively influencing people, especially in public speeches. [66]

Aisha lived on for almost fifty years after Muhammad’s death after being his wife for around a decade. She spent much of her time learning and studying two very important pieces in the Islamic religion: the Quran and the Sunnah of his Prophet. She was said to have affected and helped more women than men, but also was very well known to have taken many young children into her care. She took boys and girls, some of them being orphans into her custody, and trained and cared for them in different ways. She eventually turned her house into a school where she taught many people including various family relatives and other orphaned children. One of her most famous woman pupils was Umrah bint Abdur Rahman. This woman was also regarded as a very trustworthy narrator of the Hadith, or the teaching of Islam’s prophet, Muhammad. Eventually Umrah bint Abdur Rahman became Aisha’s secretary, she helped by receiving and responding to letters addressed to Aisha. [67]

Her Respect as a Political Influence

After Muhammad’s death, Aisha became an influential figure in early Islam. Though Muhammad had ordered his wives to stay in the home, Aisha, after Muhammad’s death, took a public and predominant role in politics. Aisha’s political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, into the Islamic leader after Muhammad’s death. Through Aisha’s standing as Muhammad’s favorite wife, her opinion was taken greatly into consideration. In early Islam, after Muhammad’s death, it was not common for women to play a governing role in the religious or political decisions. However, it was through Aisha’s recommendation, and her status as Muhammad’s favorite wife that led to her father’s appointment as the first political leader after the Prophet’s death. Abu Bakr relied heavily on the fact Muhammad was his son-in-law, and subsequent close friend.[68]

During the rule of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth successor of Muhammad, Aisha and two other male allies publicly opposed Ali ibn Abi Talib's power.[69] Political control over Islam soon escalated to bloodshed. After the death of Uthman, a veiled Aisha delivered a public address at the mosque in Mecca. In the address she swore to avenge Uthman’s death. Her charismatic speech eventually influenced many to join the cause against Ali ibn Abi Talib. Her desire to avenge Uthman's death eventually led to the Battle of Camel. This battle was named for the camel Aisha rode during the conflict. On the camel, Aisha directed her fighting men. Ali ibn Abi Talib soon realized the power Aisha had over the men, and ordered for her camel to be cut down. Once the orders had been completed, Aisha's men quickly fell into disarray without her direction, and lost the important battle.[70]

After the defeat at the Battle of Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina as a virtual prisoner.[71] Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. This is not to say, however, that her political influence stopped completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Amongst the Islamic community she was known as an intelligent woman, who debated law with male companions.[72] She was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the pilgrimage to Mecca, a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, in hopes to correct false passages, which had become influential in creating Islamic law.[73]

Death

Aisha died in Medina at the age of 65 in 678 CE (58 AH), 17 Ramadan [74]. She was buried in the Jannat al-Baqi. Though the claim of her burial at Al-Baqi cannot be verified from independent sources.[citation needed]

Views

Sunni view of Aisha

Sunnis hold Aisha in high esteem, many believe that she was Muhammad's favorite wife and the best woman of her time. They consider her (amongst other wives) to be Umm al-Mu'minin and among the members of the Ahl al-Bayt, or Muhammad's family.

Shi'a view of Aisha

Main article: Shi'a view of Aisha

The Shi'a view of Aisha is a negative one. This is primarily due to what they see as her contempt for the Ahl al-Bayt (the Islamic prophet Muhammad's family) and her attempts to stir up the fitnah (civil war) of the time. Her participation in the Battle of Jamal against Ali is widely considered her most significant sign of such contempt. They also do not believe that she conducted herself in an appropriate manner in her role as Muhammad's wife.

See also

References

  1. ^ Spellberg, p. 3.
  2. ^ 33:6
  3. ^ History of the Islamic Peoples: With a Review of Events, by Carl Brockelmann, Moshe Perlmann, Joel Carmichael; G. P. Putnams Sons, 1947
  4. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  5. ^ Ahmed, Leila. Women and gender in Islam: historical roots of a modern debate.London: Yale UP, 1992. 9780300055832. 47-75
  6. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  7. ^ a b c d Watt, "Aisha", Encyclopedia of Islam Online
  8. ^ Amira Sonbol, Rise of Islam: 6th to 9th century, Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures
  9. ^ a b c d e D. A. Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40
  10. ^ a b Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet, Harper San Francisco, 1992, p. 157.
  11. ^ Spellberg, p. 34–40.
  12. ^ Barlas (2002), p. 125-126
  13. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:58:234, 5:58:236, 7:62:64, 7:62:65, 7:62:88, Sahih Muslim, 8:3309, 8:3310, 8:3311, 41:4915, Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4917
  14. ^ Tabari, Volume 9, Page 131; Tabari, Volume 7, Page 7
  15. ^ Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, Oxford University Press 1961, page 102.
  16. ^ a b c Colin Turner, Islam: The Basics, Routledge Press, pp. 34-35
  17. ^ a b Goodwin, Jan. Price of Honour: Muslim Women Lift the Veil of Silence on the Islamic World. UK: Little, Brown Book Group, 1994[verification needed]
  18. ^ Ludwig W. Adamec, Historical Dictionary of Islam (Scarecrow Press, 2nd ed. 2009), p. 24
  19. ^ author=Barnaby Rogerson, title=THE HEIR OF MUHAMMAD
  20. ^ Surah 24:11
  21. ^ Watt, M. "Aisha bint Abi Bakr". In P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  22. ^ Glubb (2002), p. 264f.
  23. ^ 66:1
  24. ^ translation by N. J. Dawood[verification needed]
  25. ^ Surah 33:53
  26. ^ [1]
  27. ^ Women and the Advent of Islam Leila Ahmed Signs , Vol. 11, No. 4 (Summer, 1986), pp. 665-691 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Article Stable URL: http://0-www.jstor.org.lilac.une.edu/stable/3174138
  28. ^ Discourses on Women's Biographies and Cultural Identity: Twentieth-Century Representations of the Life of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr Hoda Elsadda Feminist Studies , Vol. 27, No. 1 (Spring, 2001), pp. 37-64
  29. ^ = book|last=Ahmed|first=Leila|title=Women and Gender in Islam|year=1992|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven & London|isbn=978-0-300-05583-2}}
  30. ^ Aghaie, The Origins of the Sunnite-Shi’ite Divide and the Emergence of the Ta’ziyeh Tradition, The MIT Press, TDR: The Drama Review, Volume 49, Number 4 (T 1888), Winter 2005, pp. 42-47 (Article).
  31. ^ Spellberg, D.A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint ABI Bakr. Columbia University Press. pp. 4-5. ISBN 0231079990, 9780231079990.
  32. ^ Spellberg, D.A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint ABI Bakr. Columbia University Press. pp. 32-38. ISBN 0231079990, 9780231079990.
  33. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakr
  34. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umar
  35. ^ Spellberg, D.A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint ABI Bakr. Columbia University Press. pp. 53. ISBN 0231079990, 9780231079990.
  36. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  37. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  38. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  39. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  40. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  41. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  42. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  43. ^ Aslan, Reza. No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam. 2005. Random House Inc.New York. 9780385739757. 58-136
  44. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.47
    • Holt (1977a), p.70-72
    • Tabatabaei (1979), p.50-57
  45. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
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  51. ^ Nabia Abbott, Aishah: the Beloved of Muhammad (University of Chicago Press, 1942) ISBN 978-0405053184
  52. ^ Aslan, Reza. No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam. 2005. Random House Inc.New York. 9780385739757. 58-136
  53. ^ Discourses on Women's Biographies and Cultural Identity: Twentieth-Century Representations of the Life of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr Hoda Elsadda Feminist Studies , Vol. 27, No. 1 (Spring, 2001), pp. 37-64
  54. ^ Anwar, Jawed. "History Shows the Importance of Women in Muslim Life - NAM." New America Media. 04 Apr. 2005. Muslim Weekly. 02 Dec. 2011 <http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=6d6fea04944e29e558dc1e90ff7cfb62>.
  55. ^ Discourses on Women's Biographies and Cultural Identity: Twentieth-Century Representations of the Life of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr Hoda Elsadda Feminist Studies , Vol. 27, No. 1 (Spring, 2001), pp. 37-64
  56. ^ Geissinger, Aisha (January 2011). "'A'isha bint Abi Bakr and her Contributions to the Formation of the Islamic Tradition". Religion Compass 5 (1): 37-49. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2010.00260.x
  57. ^ Aslan, Reza. No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam. 2005. Random House Inc.New York. 9780385739757. 58-136
  58. ^ Aslan, Reza. No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam. 2005. Random House Inc.New York. 9780385739757. 58-136
  59. ^ Anwar, Jawed. "History Shows the Importance of Women in Muslim Life - NAM." New America Media. 04 Apr. 2005. Muslim Weekly. 02 Dec. 2011 <http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=6d6fea04944e29e558dc1e90ff7cfb62>.
  60. ^ Ahmed, Leila. Women and gender in Islam: historical roots of a modern debate.London: Yale UP, 1992. 9780300055832. 47-75
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  63. ^ Anwar, Jawed. "History Shows the Importance of Women in Muslim Life - NAM." New America Media. 04 Apr. 2005. Muslim Weekly. 02 Dec. 2011 <http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=6d6fea04944e29e558dc1e90ff7cfb62>.
  64. ^ Horg, Jannah. "Aishah Bint Abu Bakr". Retrieved 12/1/11.
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  66. ^ Horg, Jannah. "Aishah Bint Abu Bakr". Retrieved 12/1/11.
  67. ^ Horg, Jannah. "Aishah Bint Abu Bakr". Retrieved 12/1/11.
  68. ^ Spellberg, D.A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint ABI Bakr. Columbia University Press. p. 5. ISBN 0231079990, 9780231079990. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  69. ^ Spellberg, D.A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint ABI Bakr. Columbia University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0231079990, 9780231079990. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  70. ^ Ahmed, Leila (1986). "Women and the Advent of Islam". Chicago Journals. 11 (4): 690. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  71. ^ Spellberg, D.A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint ABI Bakr. Columbia University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0231079990, 9780231079990. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  72. ^ Geissinge, Aisha (01). "'A'isha bint Abi Bakr and her Contributions to the Formation of the Islamic Tradition". Religion Compas. 10 (11): 42. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  73. ^ Spellberg, D.A. (1996). Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint ABI Bakr. Columbia University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0231079990, 9780231079990. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  74. ^ "A’isha was eighteen years of age at the time when the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) passed away and she remained a widow for forty-eight years till she died at the age of sixty-seven. She saw the rules of four Caliphs in her lifetime. She died on Ramadan 58 A.H. during the Caliphate of Hadrat Amir Mu‘awiya…" (Source: Sunan Nasa'i: English translation with Arabic Text, compiled by Imam Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Ahmad Nasa'i, rendered into English by Muhammad Iqbal Siddiqui [Kazi Publication, 121-Zulqarnain Chambers, Gampat Road, Lahore, Pakistan; first edition, 1994], Volume 1, p. 108)

Further reading

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