Community

A community is a collection of living things that share an environment, so forming a recognizable group. These living things can be plants or animals; any species, any size. Communities are characterized by interaction in many ways. The definitive aspect of community is that each subject in the mix have something in common that allows an identification. This article focuses on human communities, in which intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of adhesion.

The word community comes from the Latin communis, meaning "common, public, shared by all or many."^[1] German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies presented a concise differentiation between the terms "community" (gemeinschaft) and "society" (gesellschaft). In his 1887 work, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, Tönnies argued that "community" is perceived to be be a tighter and more cohesive social entity within the context of the larger society, due to the presence of a "unity of will."^[2] He added that family and kinship were the perfect expressions of community but that other shared characteristics, such as place or belief, could also result in gemeinschaft.

Perspectives on community

People have formed communities from the days of the earliest hunter-gatherers. Communities are distinguished by having enough participants in a group caring for the common good and developing a sense of community, in which they give of themselves. A crucial factor is the balance between self-interest and shared interests.

The catalyst for people to cooperate in the first place is less important in the context of community as the reason they continue to associate. Lasting ties among people are important in the formation of viable communities. Success by a mix of participants tends to attract attention from other less-connected individuals, who may seek to join the group. This tendency, akin to herd behavior in animals, is called self-organization in humans.

Gerhard Lenski, a sociologist, differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial.^[3] Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more-complex forms of organization and control. This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal foodstocks to become agrarian villages. Villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.^[4]

The fact that commerce, industry, government and human institutions become ever larger and more complex suggests that humans, particularly those who are conversant with the rules that drive these complexes are themselves driven toward aggregation and consolidation. When this increase in social capital reaches a critical stage, innovations in social networks can begin to work toward a higher context through cultural awareness of others. This is often referred to as the emergence of collective consciousness.^[5]

The progression of modern societies towards increasing complexity does not necessarily mean that complex is better, however. In fact, many social scientists believe that aspects of industrial societies have led to the decline of the traditional community. Currently societies worldwide are facing challenges to community. Theorists such as Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens have described aspects of modernity, such as the "risk society," that have served to profoundly alter traditional patterns of community and yet have led to the buillding of an increasingly vibrant global community.^[6]

The idea of community is important in many academic disciplines, especially within the social sciences, such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and many overlapping areas of thought. Community theories are also important in disciplines such as economics, urban planning, social work and architecture. The body of knowledge about human organization within the context of community is the focus of community psychology and overlaps with disciplines such as organizational studies, organizational development (sociology), social geography and even recently computational sociology.

Individual and community

During human growth and maturation, people encounter sets of other individuals and experiences. Infants encounter first, their immediate family, then extended family, and then local community (such as school and work). They thus develop individual and group identity through associations that connect them to life-long community experiences.

As people grow, they learn about and form perceptions of social structures. During this progression, they form personal and cultural values, a world view and attitudes toward the larger society.

Gaining an understanding of of group dynamics and how to "fit in" is part of socialization. Individuals develop interpersonal relationships and begin to make choices about whom to associate with and under what circumstances.

During adolescence and adulthood, the individual tends to develop a more sophisticated identity, often taking on a role as a leader or follower in groups. If associated individuals develop the intent to give of themselves, and commit to the collective well-being of the group, they begin to acquire a sense of community.

Socialization

The process of learning to adopt the behavior patterns of the community is called socialization. The most fertile time of socialization is usually the early stages of life, during which individuals develop the skills and knowledge necessary to function within their culture and social environment. For some psychologists, especially those in the psychodynamic tradition, the most important period of socialization is between the ages of 1 and 10. But socialization also includes adults moving into a significantly different environment, where they must learn a new set of behaviors.

Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community norms. Other important influences include school, peer groups, mass media, the workplace and government. The degree to which the norms of a particular society or community are adopted determines one's willingness to engage with others. The norms of tolerance, reciprocity and trust are important "habits of the heart," as de Tocqueville put it, in an individual's involvement in community.^[7]

Sense of community

Continuity of the connections between leaders, between leaders and followers, and among followers is vital to the strength of a community. Members individually hold the collective personality of the whole. With sustained connections and continued conversations, participants in communities develop emotional bonds, intellectual pathways, enhanced linguistic abilities, and even a higher capacity for critical thinking and problem-solving. It could be argued that successive and sustained contact with other people might help to remove some of the tension of isolation, due to alienation, thus opening creative avenues that would have otherwise remained impassable.

Conversely, sustained involvement in tight communities may tend to increase tension in some people. However, in many cases, it is easy enough to distance oneself from the "hive" temporarily to ease this stress. Psychological maturity and effective communication skills are thought to be a function of this ability. In nearly every context, individual and collective behaviours are required to find a balance between inclusion and exclusion; for the individual, a matter of choice; for the group, a matter of charter. The sum of the creative energy (often referred to as "synergy") and the strength of the mechanisms that maintain this balance is manifest as an observable and resilient sense of community.

McMillan and Chavis (1986) identify four elements of "sense of community": 1) membership, 2) influence, 3) integration and fulfillment of needs, and 4) shared emotional connection. They give the following example of the interplay between these factors:

Someone puts an announcement on the dormitory bulletin board about the formation of an intramural dormitory basketball team. People attend the organizational meeting as strangers out of their individual needs (integration and fulfillment of needs). The team is bound by place of residence (membership boundaries are set) and spends time together in practice (the contact hypothesis). They play a game and win (successful shared valent event). While playing, members exert energy on behalf of the team (personal investment in the group). As the team continues to win, team members become recognized and congratulated (gaining honor and status for being members). Someone suggests that they all buy matching shirts and shoes (common symbols) and they do so (influence).^[8]

A Sense of Community Index (SCI) has been developed by Chavis and his colleagues (1986). Although originally designed to assess sense of community in neighborhoods, the index has been adapted for use in schools, the workplace and a variety of types of communities.^[9]

Communitarianism

Communitarianism as a group of related but distinct philosophies (or ideologies) began in the late 20th century, opposing classical liberalism, capitalism and socialism while advocating phenomena such as civil society. Not necessarily hostile to social liberalism, communitarianism rather has a different emphasis, shifting the focus of interest toward communities and societies and away from the individual. The question of priority, whether for the individual or community, must be determined in dealing with pressing ethical questions about a variety of social issues, such as health care, abortion, multiculturalism, and hate speech.

Organizational communication

Effective communication practices in group and organizational settings are important to the formation and maintenance of communities. How ideas and values are communicated within communities are important to the induction of new members, the formulation of agendas, the selection of leaders and many other aspects. Organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context and the influences and interactions within organizational structures. Group members depend on the flow of communication to establish their own identity within these structures and learn to function in the group setting. Although organizational communication, as a field of study, is usually geared toward companies and business groups, these may also be seen as communities. The principles can also be applied to other types of communities.

Social capital

If the sense of community exists, both freedom and security exist as well. The community then takes on a life of its own, as people become free enough to share and secure enough to get along. The sense of connectedness and formation of social networks comprise what has become known as social capital.^[10]

Social capital is defined by Robert D. Putnam as "the collective value of all social networks (who people know) and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other (norms of reciprocity)." Social capital in action can be seen in groups of varying formality, including neighbors keeping an eye on each others' homes. However, as Putnam notes in Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000), social capital has been falling in the United States. Putnam found that over the past 25 years, attendance at club meetings has fallen 58 percent, family dinners are down 33 percent, and having friends visit has fallen 45 percent.^[11]

Western cultures are thus said to be losing the spirit of community that once were found in institutions including churches and community centers. Sociologist Ray Oldenburg states in The Great Good Place that people need three places: 1) The home, 2) the workplace, and, 3) the community hangout or gathering place.^[12]

With this philosophy in mind, many grassroots efforts such as The Project for Public Spaces are being started to create this "Third Place" in communities. They are taking form in independent bookstores, coffeehouses, local pubs and through many innovative means to create the social capital needed to foster the sense and spirit of community.^[13]

Community development

Community development is often formally conducted by universities or government agencies to improve the social well-being of local, regional and, sometimes, national communities. Less formal efforts, called community building or community organizing, seek to empower individuals and groups of people by providing them with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities. These skills often assist in building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda. Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.

Formal studies conducted by universities are often used to build a knowledge base to drive curricula in sociology or community development practice. The General Social Survey from the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago and the Saguaro Seminar at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University are examples of national community development in the United States. In The United Kingdom, Oxford University has led in providing extensive research in the field through its Community Development Journal, ^[14] used worldwide by sociologists and community development practitioners.

At the intersection between community development and community building are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools. One example of this is the program of the Asset Based Community Development Institute of Northwestern University. The institute makes available downloadable tools^[15] to assess community assets and make connections between non-profit groups and other organizations that can help in community building. The Institute focuses on helping communities develop by "mobilizing neighborhood assets" — building from the inside out rather than the outside in.^[16]

Community building and organizing

File:Ithaca Hours-One Eighth.jpg

The Ithaca Hour is an example of community-based currency.

Community building can use a wide variety of practices, ranging from simple events such as potlucks and small book clubs to larger–scale efforts such as mass festivals and construction projects that involve local participants rather than outside contractors. Some communities have developed their own "Local Exchange Trading Systems" (LETS)^[17] and local currencies, such as the Ithaca Hours system,^[18] to encourage economic growth and an enhanced sense of community.

Community building that is geared toward activism is usually termed "community organizing." In these cases, organized community groups seek accountability from elected officials and increased direct representation within decision-making bodies. Where good-faith negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to pressure the decision-makers through a variety of means, including picketing, boycotting, sit-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics. The ARISE Detroit! coalition and the Toronto Public Space Committee are examples of activist networks committed to shielding local communities from government and corporate domination and inordinate influence.

Community organizing is sometimes focused on more than just resolving specific issues. Organizing often means building a widely accessible power structure, often with the end goal of distributing power equally throughout the community. Community organizers generally seek to build groups that are open and democratic in governance. Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.

The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and faith-based community organizing (also called "institution-based community organizing," "broad-based community organizing" or "congregation-based community organizing").

Community service

Community service is usually performed in connection with a nonprofit organization, but it may also be undertaken under the auspices of government, one or more businesses, or by individuals. It is typically unpaid and voluntary. However, it can be part of alternative sentencing approaches in a justice system and it can be required by educational institutions.

Types of community

Location

The most common usage of the word "community" indicates a large group living in close proximity. Examples of local community include:

A municipality is an administrative local area generally composed of a clearly defined territory and commonly referring to a town or village. Although large cities are also municipalities, they are often thought of as a collection of communities, due to their diversity.
A neighborhood is a geographically localized community, often within a larger city or suburb.
A planned community is one that was designed from scratch and grew up more or less following the plan. Several of the world's capital cities are planned cities, notably Washington, D.C., in the United States, Canberra in Australia, and Brasília in Brazil. It was also common during the European colonization of the Americas to build according to a plan either on fresh ground or on the ruins of earlier Amerindian cities.

Identity

In some contexts, "community" indicates a group of people with a common identity other than location. Members often interact regularly. Common examples in everyday usage include:

A "professional community" is a group of people with the same or related occupations. Some of those members may join a professional society, making a more defined and formalized group.
A virtual community is a group of people primarily or initially communicating or interacting with each other by means of information technologies, typically over the Internet, rather than in person. These may be either communities of interest or communion. (See below.) Research interest is evolving in the motivations for contributing to online communities.

Overlaps

Some communities share both location and other attributes. Members choose to live near each other because of one or more common interests.

A retirement community is designated and at least usually designed for retirees and seniors –- often restricted to those over a certain age, such as 55. It differs from a retirement home, which is a single building or small complex, by having a number of autonomous households.

An intentional community is a deliberate residential community with a much higher degree of social interaction than other communities. The members of an intentional community typically hold a common social, political or spiritual vision and share responsibilities and resources. Intentional communities include Amish villages, ashrams, cohousing, communes, ecovillages, housing cooperatives, kibbutzim, and land trusts.

Special nature of human community

File:Street Musicians in NYC.jpg

Music in Central Park, a public space

Definitions of community as "organisms inhabiting a common environment and interacting with one another,"^[19] while scientifically accurate, do not convey the richness, diversity and complexity of human communities. Their classification, likewise is almost never precise. Untidy as it may be, community is vital for humans. M. Scott Peck expresses this in the following way: "There can be no vulnerability without risk; there can be no community without vulnerability; there can be no peace, and ultimately no life, without community."^[20] This conveys some of the distinctiveness of human community.

Notes

^ Harper, D. 2001. Online Etymology Dictionary.
^ Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, p. 22.
^ Lenski, G. 1974. Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.
^ Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations.
^ Durkheim, E. 1950. The Rules of Sociological Method."
^ See, for example, Beck, U. Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity (1992), and What is globalization? (2000); Giddens (1999) “Risk and Responsibility”
^ Smith, M. 2001. Community.
^ McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory," p. 16.
^ Chavis, D.M., J.H. Hogge, D.W. McMillan, & A. Wandersman, 1986. "Sense of community through Brunswick's lens: A first look."
^ Putnam, D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of the American Community, p. 19.
^ Bowling Alone web site
^ Project for Public Spaces. 2006. Ray Oldenburg.
^ University of Florida. 2006. Social Capital in Tampa Bay: An Update Report.
^ Community Development Journal, Oxford University Press
^ ABCD Institute, in cooperation with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2006. Discovering Community Power: A Guide to Mobilizing Local Assets and Your Organization's Capacity.
^ ABCD Institute. 2006. Welcome to ABCD.
^ Local Exchange Trading Systems were first developed by Michael Linton, in Courtenay, BC, see "LETSystems - new money". Retrieved: 2006-08-01.
^ The Ithaca Hours system, developed by Paul Glover is outlined in "Creating Community Economics with Local Currency". Retrieved: 2006-08-01.
^ Austalian Academy of Science. Nova: Science in the News. Retrieved: 2006-07-21.
^ M. Scott Peck, 1987. The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace, p. 233.

References

Beck, U. 1992. Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage

— 2000. What is globalization? Cambridge: Polity Press.

Chavis, D.M., Hogge, J.H., McMillan, D.W., & Wandersman, A. 1986. "Sense of community through Brunswick's lens: A first look." Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 24-40.
Cohen, A. P. 1985. The Symbolic Construction of Community. Routledge: New York.
Durkheim, Emile. 1950 [1895] The Rules of Sociological Method. Translated by S. A. Solovay and J. H. Mueller. New York: The Free Press.
Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Mesa Community College.
Giddens, A. 1999. “Risk and Responsibility” Modern Law Review 62(1): 1-10.
Lenski, G. 1974. Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc.
McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory." American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23.
Nancy, Jean-Luc. La Communauté désœuvrée (philosophical questioning of the concept of community and the possibility of encountering a non-subjective concept of it).
Peck, M.S. 1987. The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0684848589
Putnam, R. D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon and Schuster
Smith, M. K. 2001. Community. Encyclopedia of informal education. Last updated: January 28, 2005. Retrieved: 2006-07-15.
Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, Leipzig: Fues's Verlag, 2nd ed. 1912, 8th edition, Leipzig: Buske, 1935; translated in 1957 as Community and Society. ISBN 0887387500

External links

General -- entries in other encycopledias

Miscellaneous

Community Organization Fundraising Resources and strategies for community fundraisers.
Community Perspective in Quran
Definition, articles, essays from Edge Life

[1] Harper, D. 2001. Online Etymology Dictionary.

[2] Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, p. 22.

[3] Lenski, G. 1974. Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.

[4] Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations.

[5] Durkheim, E. 1950. The Rules of Sociological Method."

[6] See, for example, Beck, U. Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity (1992), and What is globalization? (2000); Giddens (1999) “Risk and Responsibility”

[Community-7] Smith, M. 2001. Community.

[8] McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory," p. 16.

[9] Chavis, D.M., J.H. Hogge, D.W. McMillan, & A. Wandersman, 1986. "Sense of community through Brunswick's lens: A first look."

[10] Putnam, D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of the American Community, p. 19.

[11] Bowling Alone web site

[12] Project for Public Spaces. 2006. Ray Oldenburg.

[13] University of Florida. 2006. Social Capital in Tampa Bay: An Update Report.

[14] Community Development Journal, Oxford University Press

[15] ABCD Institute, in cooperation with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2006. Discovering Community Power: A Guide to Mobilizing Local Assets and Your Organization's Capacity.

[16] ABCD Institute. 2006. Welcome to ABCD.

[17] Local Exchange Trading Systems were first developed by Michael Linton, in Courtenay, BC, see "LETSystems - new money". Retrieved: 2006-08-01.

[18] The Ithaca Hours system, developed by Paul Glover is outlined in "Creating Community Economics with Local Currency". Retrieved: 2006-08-01.

[19] Austalian Academy of Science. Nova: Science in the News. Retrieved: 2006-07-21.

[20] M. Scott Peck, 1987. The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace, p. 233.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]