Pangolin
| Pangolin Temporal range:
| |
|---|---|
| |
| Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Pholidota |
| Suborder: | Eupholidota |
| Superfamily: | Manoidea Weber, 1904 |
| Family: | Manidae Gray, 1821 |
| Genera | |
| |
Pangolins are mammals of the order Pholidota. The one extant family, Manidae, has three genera: Manis, which comprises four species living in Asia, Phataginus, which comprises two species living in Africa, and Smutsia, which comprises two species also living in Africa.[1] These species range in size from 30 to 100 cm (12 to 39 in). A number of extinct pangolin species are also known.
Pangolins have large, protective keratin scales covering their skin, and they are the only known mammals with this feature. They live in hollow trees or burrows, depending on the species. Pangolins are nocturnal, and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites which they capture using their long tongues. They tend to be solitary animals, meeting only to mate and produce a litter of one to three offspring which are raised for about two years. Pangolins are threatened by hunting (for their meat and scales) and heavy deforestation of their natural habitats, and are the most trafficked mammals in the world.[2] Of the eight species of pangolin, four (Phataginus tetradactyla, P. tricuspis, Smutsia gigantea, and S. temminckii) are listed as vulnerable, two (Manis crassicaudata and M. culionensis) are listed as endangered, and two (M. pentadactyla and M. javanica) are listed as critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species.[3]
Etymology
The name "pangolin" comes from the Malay word pengguling, meaning "one who rolls up".[4] However, PANGLINZ R COOLZZZ the modern name in Standard Malay is "tenggiling", whereas in Indonesian it is "trenggiling".
Description
The physical appearance of a pangolin is marked by large, hardened, overlapping plate-like scales, which are soft on newborn pangolins, but harden as the animal matures.[5] They are made of keratin, the same material of which human fingernails and tetrapod claws are made. The pangolin's scaled body is comparable to a pine cone or globe artichoke. It can curl up into a ball when threatened, with its overlapping scales acting as armor, while it protects its face by tucking it under its tail. The scales are sharp, providing extra defense from predators.[6]
Pangolins can also emit a noxious-smelling chemical from glands near the anus, similar to the spray of a skunk.[7] They have short legs, with sharp claws which they use for burrowing into termite and ant mounds, as well as climbing.[8]
The tongues of pangolins are extremely long like those of the giant anteater and the tube-lipped nectar bat; the root of the tongue is not attached to their hyoid bone, but is located in the thorax[9] between the sternum and the trachea. Large pangolins can extend their tongues as much as 40 cm (16 in), with a diameter of only 0.5 cm (0.20 in).[10]
Behavior
Most pangolins are nocturnal animals that use their well-developed sense of smell to find insects. The long-tailed pangolin is also active by day, while other species of pangolins spend most of the daytime sleeping, curled up into a ball.[10]
Arboreal pangolins live in hollow trees, whereas the ground-dwelling species dig tunnels underground, to a depth of 3.5 m (11 ft).[10]
Some pangolins walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad, although they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs. Furthermore, some exhibit a bipedal stance for some behaviors and may walk a few steps bipedally.[11] Pangolins are also good swimmers.[10]
Diet
.jpg)
Pangolins are insectivorous. Most of their diet consists of various species of ants and termites and may be supplemented by other insects, especially larvae. They are somewhat particular and tend to consume only one or two species of insects, even when many species are available to them. A pangolin can consume 140 to 200 g (4.9 to 7.1 oz) of insects per day.[12]
Pangolins have a very poor sense of vision, so they rely heavily on smell and hearing. They use their powerful front claws to dig into trees, ground, and vegetation to find prey,[13] then proceed to use their long tongues to probe inside the insect tunnels and retrieve their prey. Pangolins lack teeth, so also lack the ability to chew;[14] however, while foraging, they ingest small stones which accumulate in their stomachs to help to grind up ants.[15]
Some species, such as the tree pangolin, use their strong, prehensile tails to hang from tree branches and strip away bark from the trunk, exposing insect nests inside.[16]
Reproduction
Pangolins are solitary and meet only to mate. Males are larger than females, weighing up to 40% more. While mating season is defined, they typically mate once each year, usually during the summer or autumn. Rather than the males seeking out the females, males mark their location with urine or feces and the females will find them. If there is competition over a female, the males will use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her.[17]
Gestation periods differ by species, ranging from roughly 70 to 140 days.[18] African pangolin females usually give birth to a single offspring at a time, but the Asiatic species may give birth from one to three.[10] Weight at birth is 80 to 450 g (2.8 to 15.9 oz) and the average length is 150 mm (5.9 in). At the time of birth, the scales are soft and white. After several days, they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin. During the vulnerable stage, the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow, nursing it, and wraps her body around it if she senses danger. The young cling to the mother's tail as she moves about, although in burrowing species, they remain in the burrow for the first two to four weeks of life. At one month, they first leave the burrow riding on the mother's back. Weaning takes place around three months of age, at which stage the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing. At two years of age, the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother.[19]
Threats
Pangolins are hunted and eaten in many parts of Africa and are one of the more popular types of bush meat, while local healers use the pangolin as a source of traditional medicine.[20] They are also in great demand in southern China and Vietnam because their meat is considered a delicacy and some believe that pangolin scales have medicinal qualities.[21][22][23][24] Over the past decade, over one million pangolins are believed to have been illegally trafficked, making it the most trafficked animal in the world.[25] This, coupled with deforestation, has led to a large decrease in the numbers of pangolins. Some species, such as Manis pentadactyla have become commercially extinct in certain ranges as a result of overhunting.[26] In November 2010, pangolins were added to the Zoological Society of London's list of genetically distinct and endangered mammals.[27] All eight species of pangolin are classified by the IUCN as threatened to extinction, while two are classified as critically endangered.[22][28]
Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade, populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to unfounded beliefs in East Asia that their ground-up scales can stimulate lactation or cure cancer or asthma.[29] In the past decade, numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia.[30][31][32][33] In one such incident in April 2013, 10,000 kg (11 short tons) of pangolin meat were seized from a Chinese vessel that ran aground in the Philippines.[34][35] In another case in August 2016, an Indonesian man was arrested after police raided his home and found over 650 pangolins in freezers on his property.[36]
Conservation
As a result of increasing threats to pangolins, mainly in the form of illegal, international trade in pangolin skin, scales, and meat, these species have received increasing conservation attention in recent years. For example, in 2014, the IUCN recategorised all eight species of pangolin on its Red List of Threatened Species, and each species is now properly listed as being threatened with extinction.[37] Also, the IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins, dubbed Scaling up Pangolin Conservation in July 2014. This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation with an added emphasis on combating poaching and trafficking of the animal, while educating communities in its importance.[25]
Many attempts have been made to reproduce pangolins in captivity, but due to their reliance on wide-ranging habitats and very particular diets, these attempts are often unsuccessful.[18] They are susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia and the development of ulcers in captivity, complications which can lead to an early death.[18] In addition, pangolins rescued from illegal trade often have a higher chance of being infected with parasites such as intestinal worms, further lessening their chance for rehabilitation and reintroduction to the wild.[18] Recently, researchers have been able to improve artificial pangolin habitats to allow for reproduction of pangolins, providing some hope for future reintroduction of these species into their natural habitats.[5]
Taxonomy
Pangolins were formerly classified with various other orders, for example Xenarthra, which includes the ordinary anteaters, sloths, and the similar-looking armadillos. Newer genetic evidence, however, indicates their closest living relatives are the Carnivora with which they form the clade Ferae.[38][39] Some palaeontologists placed Ernanodonta in a separate suborder of Cimolesta near Pholidota,[40] have classified the pangolins in the order Cimolesta, together with several extinct groups indicated (†) below, though this idea has fallen out of favor since cimolestids have been determined to have not been placental mammals.[41] A recent study has supported close affinities between pangolins and the extinct groups Creodonta, Oxyaenidae and Hyaenodonta,.[42]
Until recently, all species of living pangolin had been assigned to the genus Manis. Recent research has supported the splitting of extant pangolins into three genera: Manis, Phataginus, and Smutsia.[1][43]
Template:Laurasiatheria Cladogram
.jpg)
- ORDER PHOLIDOTA sensu lato (Pholidotamorpha)[44][45][46][43]
- Suborder Palaeanodonta Matthew 1918
- Genus †Arcticanodon Rose, Eberle & McKenna 2004
- Species †Arcticanodon dawsonae Rose, Eberle & McKenna 2004
- Genus †Melaniella Fox 1984
- Species †Melaniella timosa Fox 1984
- Genus †Molaetherium Heissig 1982
- Genus †Amelotabes Rose 1978
- Species †Amelotabes simpsoni Rose 1978
- Family †Escavadodontidae Rose & Lucas 2000
- Genus †Escavadodon Rose & Lucas 2000
- Species †Escavadodon zygus Rose & Lucas 2000
- Genus †Escavadodon Rose & Lucas 2000
- Family †Epoicotheriidae Simpson 1927
- Genus †Alocodontulum Rose, Bown & Simons 1978
- Genus †Auroratherium Tong & Wamg 1997
- Species †Auroratherium sinense Tong & Wamg 1997
- Genus †Dipassalus Rose, Krishtalka & Stucky 1991
- Genus †Dipassalus oryctes Rose, Krishtalka & Stucky 1991
- Genus †Tetrapassalus Simpson 1959a
- Species †T. mckennai Simpson 1959a
- Species †T. proius West 1973c
- Genus †Epoicotherium Simpson 1927 [Xenotherium Douglass 1906 non Ameghino 1904; Pseudochrysochloris Turnbull & Reed 1967]
- Species †Epoicotherium unicum Douglass 1904 [Pseudochrysochloris yoderensis Turnbull & Reed 1967]
- Genus †Tubulodon Jepsen 1932 [Pentapassalus Gazin 1952, Alocodon Rose et al. 1977]
- Species †Tubulodon atopum Rose et al. 1978
- Species †Tubulodon pearcei Gazin 1952
- Species †Tubulodon taylori Jepsen 1932
- Species †Tubulodon woodi Guthrie 1967
- Genus †Xenocranium Colbert 1942
- Species †Xenocranium pileorivale Colbert 1942
- Family †Metacheiromyidae Wortman 1903
- Genus †Propalaeanodon Rose 1979
- Species †Propalaeanodon schaffi Rose 1979
- Genus †Palaeanodon Matthew 1918
- Species †P. parvulus Matthew 1918
- Species †P. ignavus Matthew 1918
- Species †P. nievelti Gingerich 1989
- Genus †Brachianodon Gunnell & Gingerich 1993
- Species †Brachianodon westorum Gunnell & Gingerich 1993
- Genus †Mylanodon Secord et al. 2002
- Species †Mylanodon rosei Secord et al. 2002
- Genus †Metacheiromys Wortman 1903
- Species †M. marshi Wortman 1903 [Metacheiromys tatusia Osborn 1904]
- Species †M. dasypus Osborn 1904 [Metacheiromys osborni Simpson 1931]
- Genus †Propalaeanodon Rose 1979
- Genus †Arcticanodon Rose, Eberle & McKenna 2004
- Pholidota sensu stricto
- Genus †Argyromanis patagonica Ameghino 1904
- Genus †Orthoarthrus mixtus Ameghino 1904
- Genus †Euromanis krebsi (Storch & Martin 1994) Gaudin, Emry & Wible 2009 [Eomanis krebsi Storch and Martin 1994]
- Genus †Eurotamandua Storch 1981
- Suborder Eupholidota Gaudin, Emry & Wible 2009
- Family †Eomanidae Storch 2003
- Genus †Eomanis waldi Storch 1978
- Superfamily Manoidea
- Family Patriomanidae Szalay & Schrenk 1998 sensu Gaudin, Emry & Pogue 2006
- Genus †Cryptomanis gobiensis Gaudin, Emry & Pogue 2006
- Genus †Patriomanis americana Emry 1970
- Family Manidae Gray 1821
- Genus †Necromanis Filhol 1893 [Leptomanis Filhol 1893; Necrodasypus Filhol 1893; Teutomanis Ameghino 1905; Galliaetatus Ameghino 1905]
- Species †N. franconica (Quenstedt 1886) [Lutra franconica Quenstedt 1886]
- Species †N. parva Koenigswald 1969
- Species †N. quercyi Filhol 1893
- Species †N. galliae
- Subfamily Smutsiinae Gray 1873 (African pangolins)
- Genus Phataginus Rafinesque 1821 [1] [Phataginus Rafinesque 1815 (nomen nudum); Triglochinopholis Fitzinger 1872; Uromanis Pocock 1924]
- Tree pangolin (P. tricuspis (Rafinesque 1821) Rafinesque 1821)
- Long-tailed pangolin (P. tetradactyla (Linnaeus 1766))
- Genus Smutsia Gray 1865 [1] (African ground pangolins)
- Giant pangolin (S. gigantea (Illiger 1815))
- Ground pangolin (S. temmincki (Smuts 1832))
- Genus Phataginus Rafinesque 1821 [1] [Phataginus Rafinesque 1815 (nomen nudum); Triglochinopholis Fitzinger 1872; Uromanis Pocock 1924]
- Subfamily Maninae Gray 1821
- Genus Manis Linnaeus 1758 [Pholidotus Storr 1780; Quaggelo Frisch 1775; Pangolinus Rafinesque 1821; Pangolinus Rafinesque 1815 nomen nudum; Pangolin Gray 1873; Phatages Sundevall 1843] (Asiatic pangolins)
- †M. hungarica Kormos 1934
- †M. lydekkeri Trouessart
- Asian giant pangolin (M. paleojavanica Dubois) †
- Subgenus (Manis) Linnaeus 1758
- Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata Gray 1827)
- Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla Linnaeus 1758)
- Subgenus (Paramanis) Pocock 1924
- Sunda pangolin (M. javanica Desmarest 1822)
- Philippine pangolin (M. culionensis Elera 1915)
- Genus Manis Linnaeus 1758 [Pholidotus Storr 1780; Quaggelo Frisch 1775; Pangolinus Rafinesque 1821; Pangolinus Rafinesque 1815 nomen nudum; Pangolin Gray 1873; Phatages Sundevall 1843] (Asiatic pangolins)
- Genus †Necromanis Filhol 1893 [Leptomanis Filhol 1893; Necrodasypus Filhol 1893; Teutomanis Ameghino 1905; Galliaetatus Ameghino 1905]
- Family Patriomanidae Szalay & Schrenk 1998 sensu Gaudin, Emry & Pogue 2006
- Family †Eomanidae Storch 2003
- Suborder Palaeanodonta Matthew 1918
References
- ^ a b c d Gaudin, Timothy (28 August 2009). "The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis" (PDF). Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 16 (4): 235–305. doi:10.1007/s10914-009-9119-9. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
- ^ Goode, Emilia (31 March 2015). "A Struggle to Save the Scaly Pangolin". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
- ^ "Search result for "Pangolin"". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
- ^ Judy Pearsall, ed. (2002). Concise Oxford English Dictionary (10th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 1030. ISBN 0-19-860572-2.
- ^ a b Yu, Jingyu; Jiang, Fulin; Peng, Jianjun; Yin, Xilin; Ma, Xiaohua (Oct 2015). "The First Birth and Survival of Cub in Captivity of Critically Endangered Malayan Pangolin (Mariis javanica)". Agricultural Science & Technology. 16 (10) – via EBSCO.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Wang, Bin (2016). "Pangolin armor: Overlapping, structure, and mechanical properties of the keratinous scales". Acta Biomaterialia. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2016.05.028.
- ^ "Meet the Pangolin!". Pangolins.org. 2015. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Manis tricuspis tree pangolin". University of Michigan. 2014. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Chan, Lap-Ki (1995). "Extrinsic Lingual Musculature of Two Pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae)". Journal of Mammalogy. 76 (2). American Society of Mammalogists: 472–480. doi:10.2307/1382356. JSTOR 1382356.
- ^ a b c d e Mondadori, Arnoldo, ed. (1988). Great Book of the Animal Kingdom. New York: Arch Cape Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0517667910.
- ^ Mohapatra, R.K.; Panda, S. (2014). "Behavioural descriptions of Indian pangolins (Manis crassicaudata) in captivity". International Journal of Zoology. 2014: 1–7.
- ^ Grosshuesch, Craig (2012). "Rollin' With the Pangolin - Diet". University of Wisconsin–La Crosse. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Coulson, Ian M; Heath, Martha E (Dec 1997). "Foraging behaviour and ecology of the Cape pangolin (Manis temminckii) in north-western Zimbabwe". African Journal of Ecology. 35 (4) – via EBSCO.
- ^ Lee Gutteridge (2008). The South African Bushveld: A Field Guide from the Waterberg. 30° South Publishers. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-920143-13-8.
- ^ DK Publishing (6 October 2015). Wildlife of the World. DK Publishing. p. 215. ISBN 978-1-4654-4959-7.
- ^ Donald R. Prothero (15 November 2016). The Princeton Field Guide to Prehistoric Mammals. Princeton University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-4008-8445-2.
- ^ Grosshuesch, Craig (2012). "Rollin' With the Pangolin - Reproduction". University of Wisconsin–La Crosse. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d Gong, Shiping; Hua, Liushuai; Wang, Fumin; Li, Weiye; Ge, Yan; Li, Xiaonan; Hou, Fanghui (2015-08-06). "Captive breeding of pangolins: current status, problems and future prospects". ZooKeys. 507: 99–114. doi:10.3897/zookeys.507.6970. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 4490220. PMID 26155072.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Dickman, Christopher R. (1984). MacDonald, D. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. pp. 780–781. ISBN 0-87196-871-1.
- ^ Boakye, Maxwell Kwame; Pietersen, Darren William; Kotzé, Antoinette; Dalton, Desiré-Lee; Jansen, Raymond (2015-01-20). "Knowledge and uses of African pangolins as a source of traditional medicine in Ghana". PLOS ONE. 10 (1): e0117199. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117199. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4300090. PMID 25602281.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Hance, Jeremy (29 July 2014). "Over a million pangolins slaughtered in the last decade". Mongabay. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 7 August 2014.
{{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|newspaper=(help); Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ a b "Manis javanica". IUCN Red List. 2014. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Actman, Jani (20 December 2015). "Crime Blotter: Pangolin Scales, Tiger Skins, and More". National Geographic. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
- ^ Cruise, Adam (18 April 2015). "Tiger Eyes, Crocodile Penis: It's What's For Dinner in Malaysia". National Geographic. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
- ^ a b "Action Plan". www.pangolinsg.org. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
- ^ "Manis pentadactyla (Chinese Pangolin)". www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
- ^ "'Asian unicorn' and scaly anteater make endangered list". Phys.org. 19 November 2010. Archived from the original on 11 December 2014.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Manis pentadactyla". IUCN Red List. 2014. Archived from the original on 9 February 2015.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Wassener, Bettina (12 March 2013). "No Species Is Safe From Burgeoning Wildlife Trade". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015.
{{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help); Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Sutter, John D. (3 April 2014). "The Most Trafficked Mammal You've Never Heard Of". CNN. Archived from the original on 2 February 2015.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "23 tonnes of pangolins seized in a week". Traffic.org. 17 March 2008. Archived from the original on 26 November 2014.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Watts, Jonathan (25 May 2007). "'Noah's Ark' of 5,000 rare animals found floating off the coast of China". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 3 October 2014.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Asia in Pictures". The Wall Street Journal. 27 May 2012. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Carrington, Damian (15 April 2013). "Chinese vessel on Philippine coral reef caught with illegal pangolin meat". Associated Press. London. Archived from the original on 2013-04-17. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Molland, Judy (16 April 2013). "Boat Filled With 22,000 Pounds Of Pangolin Hits Endangered Coral Reef". London: Care2. Archived from the original on 2013-04-17. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Indonesian man arrested as 650 pangolins found dead in freezers - BBC News". Retrieved 2016-08-27.
- ^ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". iucnredlist.org. Retrieved 2015-10-17.
- ^ Murphy; Willian J.; et al. (2001-12-14). "Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics". Science. 294 (5550): 2348–2351. doi:10.1126/science.1067179. PMID 11743200.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|name-list-format=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) - ^ Beck, Robin MD; Bininda-Emonds, Olaf RP; Cardillo, Marcel; Liu, Fu-Guo; Purvis, Andy (2006). "A higher-level MRP supertree of placental mammals". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 6 (1): 93. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-6-93. PMC 1654192. PMID 17101039. Archived from the original on 9 October 2014.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ For example, McKenna & Bell 1997, p. 222 in which they included palaeanodonts. (Rose 2006, p. 210)
- ^ Rook, D.L.; Hunter, J.P. (2013). "Rooting Around the Eutherian Family Tree: the Origin and Relations of the Taeniodonta". Journal of Mammalian Evolution: 1–17. doi:10.1007/s10914-013-9230-9. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. Retrieved May 2013.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Halliday, Thomas J. D.; Upchurch, Paul; Goswami, Anjali (2015). "Resolving the relationships of Paleocene placental mammals". Biological Reviews: n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/brv.12242. ISSN 1464-7931.
- ^ a b Kondrashov, Peter; Agadjanian, Alexandre K. (2012). "A nearly complete skeleton of Ernanodon (Mammalia, Palaeanodonta) from Mongolia: morphofunctional analysis". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 32 (5): 983–1001. doi:10.1080/02724634.2012.694319. ISSN 0272-4634.
- ^ Mikko's Phylogeny Archive [1] Haaramo, Mikko (2007). "Manidae– Recent pangolin". Retrieved 30 December 2015.
- ^ Paleofile.com (net, info) [2]. "Taxonomic lists- Mammals". Retrieved 30 December 2015.
- ^ "Palaeanodonta". fossilworks.org. Paleobiology Database. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
External links
- Pangolin: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation
- Tree of Life of Pholidota
- National Geographic video of a pangolin
- Proceedings of the Workshop on Trade and Conservation of Pangolins Native to South and Southeast Asia (PDF)
- Thomas, Oldfield; Lydekker, Richard (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
- The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis (PDF)
