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Stellar black hole

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Not to be confused with black hole star.

A stellar black hole (or stellar-mass black hole) is a black hole formed by the gravitational collapse of a star.[1] They have masses ranging from about 5 to several tens of solar masses.[2] The process is observed as a hypernova explosion[3] or as a gamma ray burst.[4] These black holes are also referred to as collapsars.

Properties

By the no-hair theorem, a black hole can only have three fundamental properties: mass, electric charge and angular momentum (spin). It is believed that black holes formed in nature all have some spin. The spin of a stellar black hole is due to the conservation of angular momentum of the star or objects that produced it.

The gravitational collapse of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a large star, when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) limit for neutron-degenerate matter, the end product is a compact star — either a white dwarf (for masses below the Chandrasekhar limit) or a neutron star or a (hypothetical) quark star. If the collapsing star has a mass exceeding the TOV limit, the crush will continue until zero volume is achieved and a black hole is formed around that point in space.

The maximum mass that a neutron star can possess (without becoming a black hole) is not fully understood. In 1939, it was estimated at 0.7 solar masses, called the TOV limit. In 1996, a different estimate put this upper mass in a range from 1.5 to 3 solar masses.[5]

In the theory of general relativity, a black hole could exist of any mass. The lower the mass, the higher the density of matter has to be in order to form a black hole. (See, for example, the discussion in Schwarzschild radius, the radius of a black hole.) There are no known processes that can produce black holes with mass less than a few times the mass of the Sun. If black holes that small exist, they are most likely primordial black holes. Until 2016, the largest known stellar black hole was 15.65±1.45 solar masses.[6] In September 2015, a rotating black hole of 62±4 solar masses was discovered by gravitational waves as it formed in a merger event of two smaller black holes.[7] As of April 2008, XTE J1650-500 was reported by NASA[8] and others[9][10] to be the smallest-mass black hole currently known to science, with a mass 3.8 solar masses and a diameter of only 24 kilometers (15 miles). However, this claim was subsequently retracted. The more likely mass is 5–10 solar masses.

There is observational evidence for two other types of black holes, which are much more massive than stellar black holes. They are intermediate-mass black holes (in the centre of globular clusters) and supermassive black holes in the centre of the Milky Way and other galaxies.

X-ray compact binary systems

Stellar black holes in close binary systems are observable when matter is transferred from a companion star to the black hole; the energy release in the fall toward the compact star is so large that the matter heats up to temperatures of several hundred million degrees and radiates in X-rays. The black hole therefore is observable in X-rays, whereas the companion star can be observed with optical telescopes. The energy release for black holes and neutron stars are of the same order of magnitude. Black holes and neutron stars are therefore often difficult to distinguish.

However, neutron stars may have additional properties. They show differential rotation, and can have a magnetic field and exhibit localized explosions (thermonuclear bursts). Whenever such properties are observed, the compact object in the binary system is revealed as a neutron star.

The derived masses come from observations of compact X-ray sources (combining X-ray and optical data). All identified neutron stars have a mass below 3.0 solar masses; none of the compact systems with a mass above 3.0 solar masses display the properties of a neutron star. The combination of these facts make it more and more likely that the class of compact stars with a mass above 3.0 solar masses are in fact black holes.

Note that this proof of existence of stellar black holes is not entirely observational but relies on theory: we can think of no other object for these massive compact systems in stellar binaries besides a black hole. A direct proof of the existence of a black hole would be if one actually observes the orbit of a particle (or a cloud of gas) that falls into the black hole.

Black hole kicks

The large distances above the galactic plane achieved by some binaries are the result of black hole natal kicks. The velocity distribution of black hole natal kicks seems similar to that of neutron star kick velocities. One might have expected that it would be the momenta that were the same with black holes receiving lower velocity than neutron stars due to their higher mass but that doesn't seem to be the case,[11] which may be due to the fall-back of asymmetrically expelled matter increasing the momentum of the resulting black hole.[12]

Mass gaps

It is expected that black holes with masses in certain specific ranges cannot be directly formed by the gravitational collapse of a star. Two such mass gaps are discussed, sometimes distinguished as "upper" and "lower" mass gaps.[13]

The upper mass gap is predicted by comprehensive models of late-stage stellar evolution. It is expected that supermassive stars finally reach a stage where a pair-instability supernova occurs, during which pair production, the production of free electrons and positrons in the collision between atomic nuclei and energetic gamma rays, temporarily reduces the internal pressure supporting the star's core against gravitational collapse.[14] This pressure drop leads to a partial collapse, which in turn causes greatly accelerated burning in a runaway thermonuclear explosion, resulting in the star being blown completely apart without leaving a stellar remnant behind.[15]

Pair-instability supernovae can only happen in stars with a mass range from around 130 to 250 solar masses and low to moderate metallicity (low abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium – a situation common in Population III stars). However, this mass gap is expected to be extended down to about 45 solar masses by the process of pair-instability pulsational mass loss, before the occurrence of a "normal" supernova explosion and core collapse.[16]

Observations of the LB-1 system of a star and unseen companion were initially interpreted in terms of a black hole with a mass of about 70 solar masses, which would be excluded by the upper mass gap. However, further investigations have weakened this claim.

A lower mass gap is also suspected, as there seems to be a scarcity of observed candidates with masses within a few solar masses above the maximum possible neutron star mass.[13] The basis for this possible gap is uncertain.[17]


Candidates

See also: List of black holes and List of nearest black holes

Our Milky Way galaxy contains several stellar-mass Black Hole Candidates (BHCs) which are closer to us than the supermassive black hole in the Galactic center region. Most of these candidates are members of X-ray binary systems in which the compact object draws matter from its partner via an accretion disk. The probable black holes in these pairs range from three to more than a dozen solar masses.[18][19][20]

Name BHC mass
(solar masses)		 Companion mass
(solar masses )		 Orbital period
(days)		 Distance from Earth
(light years)		 Location [21]
LB-1 68 +11/-13[22] 8[23] 78.9[22] 15000[23] 06:11:49 +22:49:32[22]
A0620-00/V616 Mon 11 ± 2 2.6–2.8 0.33 3500 06:22:44 -00:20:45
GRO J1655-40/V1033 Sco 6.3 ± 0.3 2.6–2.8 2.8 5000−11000 16:54:00 -39:50:45
XTE J1118+480/KV UMa 6.8 ± 0.4 6−6.5 0.17 6200 11:18:11 +48:02:13
Cyg X-1 11 ± 2 ≥18 5.6 6000–8000 19:58:22 +35:12:06
GRO J0422+32/V518 Per 4 ± 1 1.1 0.21 8500 04:21:43 +32:54:27
GRO J1719-24 ≥4.9 ~1.6 possibly 0.6[24] 8500 17:19:37 -25:01:03
GS 2000+25/QZ Vul 7.5 ± 0.3 4.9–5.1 0.35 8800 20:02:50 +25:14:11
V404 Cyg 12 ± 2 6.0 6.5 7800±460[25] 20:24:04 +33:52:03
GX 339-4/V821 Ara 5.8 5–6 1.75 15000 17:02:50 -48:47:23
GRS 1124-683/GU Mus 7.0 ± 0.6 0.43 17000 11:26:27 -68:40:32
XTE J1550-564/V381 Nor 9.6 ± 1.2 6.0–7.5 1.5 17000 15:50:59 -56:28:36
4U 1543-475/IL Lupi 9.4 ± 1.0 0.25 1.1 24000 15:47:09 -47:40:10
XTE J1819-254/V4641 Sgr 7.1 ± 0.3 5–8 2.82 24000 – 40000[26] 18:19:22 -25:24:25
GRS 1915+105/V1487 Aql 14 ± 4.0 ~1 33.5 40000 19:15:12 +10:56:44
XTE J1650-500 9.7 ± 1.6 [27] . 0.32[28] 16:50:01 -49:57:45

Extragalactic

Candidates outside our galaxy come from gravitational wave detections:

Outside our galaxy
Name BHC mass
(solar masses)		 Companion mass
(solar masses )		 Orbital period
(days)		 Distance from Earth
(light years)		 Location [29]
GW150914 (62 ± 4) M☉ 36 ± 4 29 ± 4 . 1.3 billion
GW170104 (48.7 ± 5) M☉ 31.2 ± 7 19.4 ± 6 . 1.4 billion
GW151226 (21.8 ± 3.5) M☉ 14.2 ± 6 7.5 ± 2.3 . 2.9 billion


The disappearance of N6946-BH1 following a failed supernova in NGC 6946 may have resulted in the formation of a black hole.[30]

See also

References

  1. ^ Celotti, A.; Miller, J.C.; Sciama, D.W. (1999). "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes". Classical and Quantum Gravity. 16 (12A): A3–A21. arXiv:astro-ph/9912186. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  2. ^ Hughes, Scott A. (2005). "Trust but verify: The case for astrophysical black holes". arXiv:hep-ph/0511217.
  3. ^ "HubbleSite: Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull interactive: Encyclopedia". hubblesite.org. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
  4. ^ "HubbleSite: Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull interactive: Encyclopedia". hubblesite.org. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
  5. ^ I. Bombaci (1996). "The Maximum Mass of a Neutron Star". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 305: 871–877. Bibcode:1996A&A...305..871B..
  6. ^ Nature 449, 799–801 (18 October 2007)
  7. ^ Abbott, BP; et al. (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Phys. Rev. Lett. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. PMID 26918975.
  8. ^ "NASA - NASA Scientists Identify Smallest Known Black Hole". nasa.gov.
  9. ^ "HOUSTON, WE'VE HAD A PROBLEM". Astronomy.com.
  10. ^ "Smallest, lightest black hole ever is identified". 1 April 2008.
  11. ^ Investigating stellar-mass black hole kicks, Serena Repetto, Melvyn B. Davies, Steinn Sigurdsson, (Submitted on 14 Mar 2012 (v1), last revised 19 Jun 2012 (this version, v2))
  12. ^ Natal Kicks of Stellar-Mass Black Holes by Asymmetric Mass Ejection in Fallback Supernovae, H.-Thomas Janka (Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Garching) (Submitted on 31 May 2013)
  13. ^ a b . doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab3800. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  14. ^ Rakavy, G.; Shaviv, G. (June 1967). "Instabilities in Highly Evolved Stellar Models". The Astrophysical Journal. 148: 803. Bibcode:1967ApJ...148..803R. doi:10.1086/149204.
  15. ^ Fraley, Gary S. (1968). "Supernovae Explosions Induced by Pair-Production Instability" (PDF). Astrophysics and Space Science. 2 (1): 96–114. Bibcode:1968Ap&SS...2...96F. doi:10.1007/BF00651498.
  16. ^ . doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab518b. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  17. ^ . doi:10.1088/0004-637X/757/1/36. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  18. ^ J. Casares: Observational evidence for stellar-mass black holes. Preprint
  19. ^ Garcia, M.R.; et al. "Resolved Jets and Long Period Black Hole Novae". arXiv:astro-ph/0302230.
  20. ^ J.E. McClintock and R.A. Remillard: Black Hole Binaries. Preprint
  21. ^ ICRS coordinates obtained from SIMBAD. Format: right ascension (hh:mm:ss) ±declination (dd:mm:ss).
  22. ^ a b c Liu, Jifeng; et al. (27 November 2019). "A wide star–black-hole binary system from radial-velocity measurements". Nature. 575: 68-621. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1766-2. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
  23. ^ a b Chinese Academy of Science (27 November 2019). "Chinese Academy of Sciences leads discovery of unpredicted stellar black hole". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 29 November 2019.
  24. ^ Masetti, N.; Bianchini, A.; Bonibaker, J.; della Valle, M.; Vio, R. (1996), "The superhump phenomenon in GRS 1716-249 (=X-Ray Nova Ophiuchi 1993)", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 314
  25. ^ Miller-Jones, J. A. C.; Jonker; Dhawan (2009). "The first accurate parallax distance to a black hole". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 706 (2): L230. arXiv:0910.5253. Bibcode:2009ApJ...706L.230M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/706/2/L230.
  26. ^ Orosz; et al. "A Black Hole in the Superluminal source SAX J1819.3-2525 (V4641 Sgr)". arXiv:astro-ph/0103045v1.
  27. ^ Shaposhnikov, N.; Titarchuk, L. (2009). "Determination of Black Hole Masses in Galactic Black Hole Binaries using Scaling of Spectral and Variability Characteristics" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. 699 (1). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/699/1/453.
  28. ^ Orosz, J.A.; et al. (2004). "Orbital Parameters for the Black Hole Binary XTE J1650–500". The Astrophysical Journal. 616 (1): 376–382. arXiv:astro-ph/0404343. Bibcode:2004ApJ...616..376O. doi:10.1086/424892.
  29. ^ ICRS coordinates obtained from SIMBAD. Format: right ascension (hh:mm:ss) ±declination (dd:mm:ss).
  30. ^ Adams, S. M.; Kochanek, C. S; Gerke, J. R.; Stanek, K. Z.; Dai, X. (9 September 2016). "The search for failed supernovae with the Large Binocular Telescope: conformation of a disappearing star". arXiv:1609.01283v1 [astro-ph.SR].
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