Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagar Empire during Deva Raya II (1446) and Krishnadevaraya (1520),
Official languages	Kannada Telugu
Capitals	Early Capital: Anegondi Regal Capital: Vijayanagara
Government	Monarchy
Preceding states	Hoysala, Kakatiya, Pandya
Succeeding states	Mysore Kingdom, Vijayanagar Empire in Penukonda, Keladi Nayakas of Shimoga, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayakas of Chitradurga, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayaks of Gingee.

File:Stonechariot Vitthala hampi.jpg

Stone Chariot Hampi

The Vijayanagara Empire (Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ, Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము) (literally City of victory) was an important South Indian empire based in the Deccan. Beginning in 1336, it ruled until 1660 although its power declined after a major defeat in 1565 by its main foe, the Deccan sultanates. The empire's founders were Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I, guided and mentored by Saint Vidyaranya, and it is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara whose impressive ruins surround Hampi in modern Karnataka, India. Recent archaeological excavations and research are only now revealing clues to its origins and history attesting to its power and wealth. The writings of medieval European travellers, such as the Portuguese Domingo Paes and Nuniz and the Venetian Niccolò Da Conti visiting in 1420, provde the critical information needed to piece together the history of the empire, as do works of literature in the local vernaculars.

Left behind is the empire's legacy of monuments spread over South India, the most well known being the group at the royal capital of Vijayanagara at Hampi, now a World Heritage Site. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought such new technologies as irrigation through water management systems. The mingling of the Southern Indian people, irrespective of faith and vernacular, inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using locally available granite. The temple building traditions of previous Southern Indian empires came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The secular royal structures built show the influence of the Northern Deccan Sultanates architecture. The empire's patronage of the fine arts enabled literature and poetry to reach new heights in the languages of Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved to its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that rose above the politics of narrow regionalism by promoting the ancient and indigenous Hindu dharma.

History

Main articles: Origin of Vijayanagara Empire and Ancient City of Vijayanagara

In early 14th century, the Hindu kingdoms of the Deccan were overrun by Muslim invaders from the north. In 1309 Malik Kafur captured Warangal and later the Malabar kingdoms. By 1336 the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, the Pandya of Madurai, and the tiny kingdom of Kampili had all been defeated. The Hoysala Empire was the sole remaining Hindu kingdom standing in the path of the Muslim invasion. In 1343, after the death of Hoysala Veera Ballala III in a battle against the Sultan of Madurai, the Hoysala empire merged with the growing Vijayanagara kingdom ruled by Harihara I and Bukka Raya. The original capital was in the principality of Anegondi on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's Karnataka. It was later moved to nearby Vijayanagara on the river's southern banks during the reign of Bukka Raya I.

Well known historians have proposed differing theories on the Vijayanagara empire's origins. Some claim a Telugu origin of Harihara I and Bukka Raya, the empire's founders. Other historians propose a Kannadiga origin. The theory that the founders were supported by the sage Vidyaranya is widely accepted. Writings by various foreign travellers during the late medieval era and modern research in the Vijayanagara principality have helped uncover much needed information about the empire's history, its fortifications, its scientific developments and architectural innovations.

Within the first two decades of coming to power, Harihara I gained control of most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned himself the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara (master of the eastern and western oceans). By 1374 Bukka Raya, successor to Harihara I, defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, the Sultan of Madurai and gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra - Krishna River doab in the north. The island of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged with the Ming Dynasty of China.

With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now looking imperial in stature Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, defeated the Bahmani Sultanate Mujahid and captured important ports in the north west including Chaul and Dabhol in North Konkan, the forts of Udayagiri in the east and defeated the Velamas of Rachakonda north of the Krishna river bringing the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella. The next ruler, Deva Raya I fought the Gajapatis of Orissa successfully and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation. Deva Raya II (called Gajabetekara) succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers. He quelled rebelling feudatories as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim as well bringing rich tributes to the empire. Rich tributes to Devaraya II had been payed by the Persian traveller Abdur Razzak who travelled in Vijayanagara in 1443 while noting the kingdom's cultural and military achievements. Due to weak rulers who lost territory through the encorachment of ambitious subodinates, the empire declined in the late 15th century until 1485 when the commander Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya made a serious attempt to reconsolidate the empire. His successor in 1491, general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, took proxy control of the empire and fought many wars to prevent its disintegration. After nearly two decades of conflict with rebellious chieftains, the empire eventually came under the rule of the able son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, Krishnadevaraya.

In the following decades the Vijayanagara empire dominated all of Southern India and fought off invasions from the Turkic Sultanates of the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north while the empire was in constant competition and conflict with the five other established Deccan Sultanates. Trade remained busy and grew after the Portuguese captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northen Deccan as well as the territories in the eastern Deccan including Kalinga while simulteneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many noted monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishnadevaraya, important among them being the Hazara Rama temple, the Krishna temple and the Ugra Narasimha idol, all at Vijayanagara.

Krishna Deva Raya was followed by Achyuta Raya in 1530 and in 1542 by Sada Siva Raya while the empire still remained an unchallenged power. The real power lay with Aliya Rama Raya, son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya whose relationship with the Deccan Sultans who eventually allied against him has been debated.

File:Harara Rama templepillars DK.jpg

courtyard pillars Hampi

In the Battle of Talikota in 1565, after a seemingly easy victory for the Vijayanagara armies, the sudden capture and killing of Aliya Rama Raya created havoc and confusion in the Vijayanagara ranks. The Vijayanagara army was routed by an alliance of the Deccan sultanates who later attacked and plundered Hampi reducing it to the ruins it stands in today. With this act, the last significant Hindu state in the Deccan came to an end. Tirumala Raya, the sole survivor left Vijayanagara with vast amounts of treasure on the back of 550 elephants for Penukonda.

Main article: Battle of Talikota

After the defeat at Talikota, the empire continued to rule the local people, but it went into a slow decline regionally although trade with the Portuguese continued and the British were given a land grant for the establishment of Madras. Tirumala Raya was succeeded by his son Sriranga I during whose rule the empire shrank further. Next came his able brother Venkata II who made Chandragiri his capital, repulsed the invasion of the Bahamani Sultans and saved Penukonda from being captured. His death brought internal revolt for succession and finally Ramadeva took power and ruled till 1632. After his death, Venkata III became king and ruled for about ten years after which Vellore was made the capital. The empire was finally conquered by the Sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda. The largest feudatories of the Vijayanagar empire — the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayakas of Gingee — declared independence and went on to be significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries. The Nayaka kingdoms lasted into the 18th century while the Mysore Kingdom remained a princely state until Indian Independence in 1947 although they came under the British Raj in 1799 after the death of Tipu Sultan.

Governance

The Vijayanagara empire was built on the territories of the Hoysalas, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms. Therefore the rulers preferred to maintain the time tested administrative methods of their predecessors in their respective regions of the empire, making changes only where necessary.

The King was the ultimate authority and no opportunity to portray him as a "God on Earth" was spared. He was assisted by a cabinet of ministers called Pradhana, the most powerful of whom was the prime minister (Mahapradhana). Each province was under a commander (Dandanayaka or Dandanatha). Other important designations recorded in inscriptions were chief secretary (Karyakartha or Rayaswami) and imperial officers (Adhikari). All high ranking ministers and officers were required to undergo military training. A secretariat existed near the kings palace which employed scribes and officers who maintained records made official by using a wax seal imprinted with the ring of the king. At the lower levels of administration were Goudas aided by accountants (Karanikas or Karnam) and guards (Kavalu).

The empire was divided into five main provinces called a Rajya, each of which functioned using its native language for administrative purposes and was headed by a governer often from the royal family. A Rajya was divided into Vishaya or Vente (also called Kottam in Tamil speaking areas) and further into Sime or Nadu, then subdivided into the Kampana or Sthala. The lowest administrative unit was a group of villages. Hereditery families such as Santaras of Karkala, Pandya and chieftains of Travancore ruled their respective territories, paying tribute to the empire while other areas such as Keladi and Madurai came under the direct supervision of a commander.

On the battlefield the king sometimes took direct control but more often entrusted his most capable commanders to execute this responsibility. Wars were not always massive invasions but often employed methods that reduced loss of life on the field, such as battle by attrition and the besiegement and destruction of forts. For the first time the use of long range artillery manned by foreign gunners became common. (Gunners from present day Turkmenistan were considered the best). The army was of two types: the republican guard directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. King Krishnadevaraya's republican guard consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen and over 900 elephants. This number was only a fraction of the overall army numbering over 1.1 million soldiers, a figure that varied as an army of 2 million was also recorded along with the existence of a navy deduced from records using the term Navigadaprabhu (commander of the navy) The army was recruited from all classes of society and supported by solicitation of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers. The army consisted of archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics, shieldmen with swords and poignards in their girdles. The soldiers carried such large shields that no armour was necessary. The horses and elephants were fully clothed and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle.

The city's functioning was completely dependent on the water supply systems constructed to channel and store water to ensure a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing surface water distribution methods in use at that time in South India's semi arid regions. Contemporary inscriptions and notes of foreign travellers describe how huge tanks were constructed by armies of labourers. Excavations have uncovered the remains of a well connected water distribution system solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes, suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty and special ceremonial purposes. The only system that resembles public waterworks are the remains of large water tanks which collected the seasonal monsoon water, running dry in summer except for the few fed by springs. In areas near the Tungabhadra River, canals were dug to guide the river water into tanks. These canals had gates that opened and closed, controlling the water flow. In other areas the administration encouraged the digging of wells monitored by authorities. Inside the royal enclosure, sophisticated channels using gravity and siphons to transport water through pipelines for royal use. Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit.

Culture

Social life

Chalukya pillars and dravida vimana, Hampi

Much historical information regarding the social life in Vijayanagara empire comes from travelogues of foregin visitors and information that research teams in the Vijayanagara area have uncovered supporting details.

The Hindu caste system was prevalent and rigidly followed with each caste reperesented by a local body of elders who represented the community. These elders set the rules and regulations that were implemented with the help of royal decrees. Untouchability was a part of the caste system and these communities were represented in the Balutedar group of leaders (also known as Kaivadadavaru). The Muslim communities were represented by a group called Hanjamana in coastal Karnataka. The caste system however did not prevent distinguished persons from all castes being promoted to high ranking cadre in the army and administration. The discovery of a virakal (hero stone) of a hero from the Madara caste, a lower caste attests to this. In civil life by virtue of the caste system Brahmins enjoyed a high level of respect. With the exception of a few who took to martial careers, most Brahmins were concentrated in religious and literary areas. Their separation from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters and their presence in every town and village was a calculated investment made by the nobility and aristocrats to maintain order.

The practice of Sati was also common though voluntary and generally practiced among the upper classes. Over fifty inscriptions attesting to this have been discovered in the Vijayanagara principality alone. These inscriptions are called Satikal (Sati stone), Sati-virakal (Sati hero stone). Satikals commemorate the death of a woman by entering into fire after the death of her husband while Sati-virkal was made for a woman who performed Sati after her husband's heroic death. Either way, the woman was raised to the level of a demi-Goddess and proclaimed by the sculpture of a Sun and crescent moon on the stone.

The socio-religious movements of the previous centuries such as Virashaiva provided momentum for flexible social norms to which women were expected to abide. By this time South Indian women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in matters normally considered the monopoly of men, such as administration, business and trade, and involvement in the fine arts. Records prove that many women poets were active in the empire including Tirumalamba Devi and Gangambika. Madhuravijayam is a well known literary work in Sanskrit by Gangambika, daughter-in-law of King Bukka Raya I, that describes the victory of the empire against the Sultanate of Madurai and Varadambika Parinayam is attributed to Tirumalamba devi. The court of the Nayakas of Tanjore is known to have patronised several women poets. The Devadasi system, legalised prostitution relegated to a few streets in each city and the popularity of maintaining harems by men of royalty is well known from records.

Well-to-do men wore turbans called Petha and Kulavi, a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold. Jewellery was used by men and women as records describe the use of anklets, bracelets, fingerings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of rose water, civet, musk or Sandalwood.

Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment. Even women wrestlers are mentioned in records. King Krsihnadevaraya maintained a daily routine of drinking Gingelly oil in the morning which he then sweated away by rigourous exercises, sword practice, a bout of wrestling with a local wrestler followed by horse riding, before making his presence in the Durbar (court). Gymnasyums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records speak of regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peace time. Royal palaces and market places had special arenas where royalty and common people alike amused themselves by watching matches such as cock fights, ram fights and wrestling between women. Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various types of community based activities in the form of engravings on boulders, sheet rock and temple floors, implying these were places of casual social interaction. Some of these games are in use today and others are yet to be identified.

In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives was modest, the lives of the empire's kings and queens were full of ceremonial pomp in the court. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery, their daily duties being light. The palace administration was divided into 72 departments (Niyogas), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty. Some of these women were captured in victorious battles or imported from other areas. These women were normally well trained and educated to handle minor adminsitrative matters in addition to serving men of noblility as courtesans or concubines.

Religion

File:HazaraRamatemple Blackgranite DK.jpg

Rangamantapa, Black Granite pillars Hampi

Main article: Haridasas of Vijayanagar Empire

Although the empire was built to protect shield Hindu dharma from the onslaughts of Mugal invasions of South India, the Vijayanagara kings were tolerant of all religions and sects as travelogues of foreign visitors show. The kings used titles like Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (protector of cows) and Hindurayasuratrana (upholder of Hindu faith) that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism. Empire founders Harihara I and Bukka Raya I were devout Shaivans (worshippers of Shiva) but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint and designated Varaha (boar, an avatar of Vishnu) their emblem. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi and Lord Venkateshwara at Tirupati. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani (Protective jewel of Karnata Empire). The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.

The Bhakti movement (devotional movement) was active during this time and involved well known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. Like the Virashaiva movement of 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The haridasas represented two groups, the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta, the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs (Devaranamas and Kirthanas). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was preserved and perpetuated by his eminent disciples like Vyasatirtha, Naraharitirtha, Padmanabha Tirtha, Akshobhya Tirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha and others. Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya and Vadirajatirtha are called the Yathi Trayaru (holy Trinity) of the Madhvacharya order. In the 15th century, the haridasa movement took shape under Sripadaraya but his disciple Vyasatirtha provided it a strong organisational base and was intimately associated with the Vijayanagara Empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force. His eminent disciples were Sri Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa (Father of Carnatic music), Kanakadasa and King Krishnadevaraya who considered the saint his Kuladevata (family deity) and honoured him in many of his writings. During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Tallapakam Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Telugu language at Tirupati in present day Andhra Pradesh.

The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The decline of Buddhism that began in South India in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara's Advaita philosophy continued.

The Islamic contact with South India began as early as 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century and many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th century. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappillas (Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. The introduction of Christianity began as early as the 8th century as shown by the finding of copper plates inscribed with grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travellers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the middle ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by Saint Xavier (1545) and later the presence of Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.

Literature

Main article: Vijayanagara Empire Literature

The Vijayanagar era was a golden age of arts and culture, when writers created great works in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil. During this magnificent historical epoch, the Telugu language became a popular literary medium and reached its zenith under the patronage of Krishnadevaraya.

Most Sanskrit works were commentaries on the Vedas and on the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics, written by well known proponents such as Sayana and Madhava Vidyaranya who extolled the superiority of the Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies. Famous Dvaita saints of the Udupi order were Jayatirtha who earned the title Tikacharya for his polemicial writings, Vyasatirtha who wrote books rebutting the Advaita philosophy and conclusions of earlier logicians, and Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya who criticised the beliefs of Adi Sankara. Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudatory chiefdoms. Many kings of the dynasty were themselves well versed and authored classics such as King Krishnadevaraya's Jambavati Kalyana, a poetic and dramatically skillful work.

The period's Kannada poets and scholars produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas (devotees of Vishnu), Brahminical and Virashaiva (Lingayatism) literature. The Haridasa poets celebrated devotion through songs called Devaranama in the ragale metre (lyrical poems). Their inspirations were the teachings of Madhvacharya and Vyasatirtha. Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many Dasas by virtue of their immense contributions. Kumara Vyasa, the most notable Brahmin scholars wrote Gudugina Bharata, a translation of the epic Mahabharata. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from Old Kannada to Nadu Kannada. Famous among Virashaiva scholars was Chamarasa, a poet who held many disputations with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II. His writing Prabhulinga Lile which was later translated into Telugu and Tamil was a eulogy of saint Allama Prabhu, considered an incarnation to Lord Ganapathi while Parvathi takes the form of a princess of Banavasi.

In a golden age of Telugu literature, many famous writings in the Prabhanda style were accomplished, most famous among them being the writing Manucharitamu. King Krishnadevaraya himself was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the celebrated Amuktamalyada. This was the age of Srinatha, considered by some the greatest of all Telugu poets. Said to have written the Manucharitamu while still a boy and the Salivahana-sapta-sati as a young lad, he was patronised by King Devaraya II. It is said his stature was equal to the most important ministers in the court of his patron king, though he died a poor man eventually. In the court of King Krishnadevaraya were the eigth famous scholars, regarded as the pillars (Astadiggajas) of the literary assembly, most famous among whom were Allasani Peddana honoured with the title Andhrakavitapitamaha (father of Telugu poetry) and Tenali Ramakrishna, Krishnadevaraya's court jester who accomplished several well known writings. Krishnadevaraya patronised Tamil poet Haridasa

Architecture

Main articles: Vijayanagara Architecture, Vijayanagara, and Hampi

File:Harara Rama Bow DK.jpg

Lord Rama breaking Shiva's bow, Hampi

File:Hazara Rama rearview DK.jpg

Inside the Hazara Rama temple Hampi

Watch tower, secular style Hampi

Vijayanagara Architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. The hallmark of its style is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marraige hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). Builders used the locally available hard granite because of its durability as the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

During the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or Deccan style monuments but later slowly incorporated dravida style gopurams better meeting their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka Raya I and Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya I are examples of Deccan architecture. The varied and intricate treatment given to various pillar styles is a special feature. At Hampi, though the Vitthala temple is the best example of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a more modest but perfectly finished example. A conspicuous aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty. A grand specimen of Vijayanagara art, the Vitthala temple, took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.

Another important feature of the Vijayanagara style is the creation of large monolithics such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha and Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi, the Gomoteshwara statues in Karkala and Venur, and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara temples of Bhatkal, Kanakagiri, Sringeri and other towns of coastal Karnataka, Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam in Andhra Pradesh, Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are good stylistic examples. Vijayanagara art includes paintings such as Dasavathara and Girijakalyana in the Virupaksha temple at Hampi, Shivapurana paintings at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi, as well as paintings at the Jain basadi and the Kamaskshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi. Historians have written that the mingling of South Indian architectural styles resulted in a richness not seen in earlier centuries, with a focus on decoration rather than sculpture that surpasses anything previously in India.

A dimension of the Vijayanagara architecture that brings out the cosmopolitan lifestyle of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults that betray these influences. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty. The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been Muslim architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The "Great Platform" (Mahanavmi dibba) has relief carvings which depict figures that seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.

Language

The use of Kannada, Telugu and Tamil were extensive in their respective regions of the empire. Over 7000 inscriptions (Shasana) including 300 copper plate inscriptions (Tamarashasana) have been recovered to date, almost half of which are in Kannada, the remaining in Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, bilingual inscriptions having lost favour by the 14th century. The empire minted coins at Hampi, Penugonda and Tirupati with Devanagari, Kannada and Telugu legends usually carrying the name of the ruler. Gold, silver and copper were used to issue coins called Gadyana, Varaha, Pon, Pagoda, Pratapa, Pana, Kasu and Jital. The most beautiful of these were coins with the images of various Gods including Balakrishna (infant Krishna), Venkateshwara the preciding deity of the temple at Tirupati, Goddesses such as Bhudevi and Sridevi, devine couples, animals such as bulls and elephants and birds. The earliest coins feature Hanuman and the Garuda (divine eagle), the vehicle of Lord Vishnu. Kannada and Telugu inscriptions have been deciphered and recorded by historians of the Archeological survey of India.

See also

• Hoysala Empire
• Chalukya dynasty

References

• Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041
• K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, 1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002) ISBN 0-19-560686-8
• Hampi, A Travel Guide, Department of Tourism, India, Good Earth publication, New Delhi 2003 ISBN 81-877801-7-7
• New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, MARG, 2001, ISBN 81-85026-53-X
• Research on Vijayanagar empire by Robert Sewell

• Vijayanagar coins, Govt. museum, Chennai
• Coins of Vijayanagar Empire
• Vijayanagar Coinage
• History of Karnataka - Mr. Arthikaje,© 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc
• Indian Inscriptions - Archeological Survey Of India
• Cited and adapted from public domain source
• A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar: A Contribution to the History of India
• Vijayanagar Empire, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• A Complete list of Haridasas of Karnataka, C.R. Madhusudana Rao

The empire and modern media

The heroics and achievements of the empire have been brought out in modern films on multiple occasions.

• Vijayanagarada Viraputra about the life of Harihara I (Kannada)
• Sri KrishnaDeva Raya (Kannada and Telugu)
• Kumara Rama, prince of Kummatadurga, Bellary district, also known as Kampili kingdom (Kannada)

Free e-Book

• [1] A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): a contribution to the history of India (Translation of the "Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga" written by Domingos Paes and Fernão Nunes about 1520 and 1535, respectively, with a historical introduction by Robert Sewell).available freely at Project Gutenberg

Related links

• The Vijayanagar Empire - Vikram.G.Aarella
• (Biography of Hakka and Bukka
• Hampi - History and Tourism