Biodynamic agriculture: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Shermer cannot be misinterpreted--he is not so negative as that
→‎Criticism: remove this: it's being misrepresented
Line 109: Line 109:


In a 1994 analysis, Holger Kirchmann, a soil researcher with the [[Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences]], concluded that Steiner's instructions were occult and dogmatic, and cannot contribute to the development of alternative or sustainable agriculture and that many of Steiner's statements are not provable because scientifically clear hypotheses cannot be made from his descriptions (for example, it is hard to prove that one has harnessed "cosmic forces" in the foods). Kirchmann asserted that when methods of biodynamic agriculture were tested scientifically, the results were unconvincing.<ref name=Kirchmann>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF02349036 | last1 = Kirchmann | first1 = Holger | year = 1994| title = Biological dynamic farming--an occult form of alternative agriculture? | url = | journal = J. Agric. Environ. Ethics | volume = 7 | issue = 2| pages = 173–187 }}</ref> Further, in a 2004 overview of biodynamic agriculture, Linda Chalker-Scott, a researcher at [[Washington State University]], characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience, writing that Steiner did not use scientific methods to formulate his theory of biodynamics, and that the later addition of valid organic farming techniques has "muddled the discussion" of Steiner's original idea. Based on the scant scientific testing of biodynamics, Chalker-Scott concluded "no evidence exists" that homeopathic preparations improve the soil.<ref name="Chalker-Scott">{{cite web |url=http://www.puyallup.wsu.edu/~linda%20chalker-scott/horticultural%20myths_files/Myths/Biodynamic%20agriculture.pdf |last=Chalker-Scott |first=Linda |title=The Myth of Biodynamic Agriculture |publisher=Puyallup Research and Extension Center, Washington State University }}</ref>
In a 1994 analysis, Holger Kirchmann, a soil researcher with the [[Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences]], concluded that Steiner's instructions were occult and dogmatic, and cannot contribute to the development of alternative or sustainable agriculture and that many of Steiner's statements are not provable because scientifically clear hypotheses cannot be made from his descriptions (for example, it is hard to prove that one has harnessed "cosmic forces" in the foods). Kirchmann asserted that when methods of biodynamic agriculture were tested scientifically, the results were unconvincing.<ref name=Kirchmann>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF02349036 | last1 = Kirchmann | first1 = Holger | year = 1994| title = Biological dynamic farming--an occult form of alternative agriculture? | url = | journal = J. Agric. Environ. Ethics | volume = 7 | issue = 2| pages = 173–187 }}</ref> Further, in a 2004 overview of biodynamic agriculture, Linda Chalker-Scott, a researcher at [[Washington State University]], characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience, writing that Steiner did not use scientific methods to formulate his theory of biodynamics, and that the later addition of valid organic farming techniques has "muddled the discussion" of Steiner's original idea. Based on the scant scientific testing of biodynamics, Chalker-Scott concluded "no evidence exists" that homeopathic preparations improve the soil.<ref name="Chalker-Scott">{{cite web |url=http://www.puyallup.wsu.edu/~linda%20chalker-scott/horticultural%20myths_files/Myths/Biodynamic%20agriculture.pdf |last=Chalker-Scott |first=Linda |title=The Myth of Biodynamic Agriculture |publisher=Puyallup Research and Extension Center, Washington State University }}</ref>

In [[Michael Shermer]]'s two-volume work, ''[[The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience]]'', biodynamic agriculture, despite relying on astrological conditions, cosmic influences and magical rituals, is described as having been "verified scientifically".<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&pg=PA32 |title=The Skeptic encyclopedia of pseudoscience |last=Shermer |first=Michael |page=32 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |volume=2 |isbn=1576076539 |year=2002}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 23:56, 16 November 2011

Part of a series on
Anthroposophy
General
Anthroposophically inspired work
Philosophy

Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming that emphasizes the holistic development and interrelationships of the soil, plants and animals as a self-sustaining system.[1][2][3] Biodynamic farming has much in common with other organic approaches, such as emphasizing the use of manures and composts and excluding of the use of artificial chemicals on soil and plants. There are independent certification agencies for biodynamic products; most of these agencies are members of the international biodynamics standards group Demeter International.

Biodynamics was one of the first modern ecological farming systems[4][5] and is considered to be one of the most sustainable.[6] As of 2011 biodynamic techniques were used on 142,482 hectares in 47 countries; Germany accounts for 45.1% of the global total.[7] Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include the use of fermented herbal and mineral preparations as compost additives and field sprays and the use of an astronomical sowing and planting calendar.[8] Biodynamics originated out of the work of Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy.

Biodynamic agriculture has been characterized as pseudoscience.[9][10][11][12]

History

The development of biodynamic agriculture began in 1924 with a series of eight lectures on agriculture given by philosopher Rudolf Steiner at Schloss Koberwitz in Silesia, Germany, (now Kobierzyce in Poland east of Wrocław). The course was held in response to a request by farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers.[13] At the course of eight lectures there were 111 attendees coming from six countries.[14] An agricultural research group was subsequently formed to test the effects of biodynamic methods on the life and health of soil, plants and animals.[15]

Today biodynamics is practiced in more than 50 countries worldwide. Demeter International is the primary certification agency for farms and gardens using the methods.

Geographic developments

Biodynamic method of farming

Biodynamic agriculturalists conceive of the farm as an organically self-contained entity with its own individuality, within which organisms are interdependent. "Emphasis is placed on the integration of crops and livestock, recycling of nutrients, maintenance of soil, and the health and well being of crops and animals; the farmer too is part of the whole."[24] Cover crops, green manures and crop rotations are used extensively and the farms foster bio-diversity.

Biodynamic farms often have a cultural component and encourage local community. Some biodynamic farms use the Community Supported Agriculture model, which has connections with social threefolding.

Biodynamic preparations

Steiner prescribed nine different preparations to aid fertilization which are the cornerstone of biodynamic agriculture, and described how these were to be prepared. Steiner believed that these preparations transferred supernatural terrestrial and cosmic "forces" into the soil.[3] The prepared substances are numbered 500 through 508, where the first two are used for preparing fields whereas the latter seven are used for making compost. A long term trial (DOK experiment) evaluating the biodynamic farming system in comparison with organic and conventional farming systems, found that preparations have influence on soil structure and micro-organisms enhancing soil fertility and increasing biodiversity.[25] Regarding compost development beyond accelerating the initial phase of composting, some positive effects have been noted:[26]

  • The field sprays contain substances that stimulate plant growth include cytokinins.
  • Some improvement in nutrient content of compost.

Field preparations

Field preparations, for stimulating humus formation:

  • 500: (horn-manure) a humus mixture prepared by filling the horn of a cow with cow manure and burying it in the ground (40–60 cm below the surface) in the autumn. It is left to decompose during the winter and recovered for use the following spring.
  • 501: Crushed powdered quartz prepared by stuffing it into a horn of a cow and buried into the ground in spring and taken out in autumn. It can be mixed with 500 but usually prepared on its own (mixture of 1 tablespoon of quartz powder to 250 liters of water) The mixture is sprayed under very low pressure over the crop during the wet season, in an attempt to prevent fungal diseases. It should be sprayed on an overcast day or early in the morning to prevent burning of the leaves.

Both 500 and 501 are used on fields by stirring about one teaspoon of the contents of a horn in 40–60 liters of water for an hour and whirling it in different directions every second minute. Although some biodynamic beliefs refer to buried quartz "fermenting", a 2004 review commented that it is unclear what this actually means, as rock does not ferment.[27]

Compost preparations

Compost preparations, used for preparing compost, employ herbs which are frequently used in medicinal remedies:

  • 502: Yarrow blossoms (Achillea millefolium) are stuffed into urinary bladders from Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), placed in the sun during summer, buried in earth during winter and retrieved in the spring.
  • 503: Chamomile blossoms (Matricaria recutita) are stuffed into small intestines from cattle buried in humus-rich earth in the autumn and retrieved in the spring.
  • 504: Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) plants in full bloom are stuffed together underground surrounded on all sides by peat for a year.
  • 505: Oak bark (Quercus robur) is chopped in small pieces, placed inside the skull of a domesticated animal, surrounded by peat and buried in earth in a place where lots of rain water runs past.
  • 506: Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum officinale) is stuffed into the peritoneum of cattle and buried in earth during winter and retrieved in the spring.
  • 507: Valerian flowers (Valeriana officinalis) are extracted into water.
  • 508: Horsetail (Equisetum)

One to three grams (a teaspoon) of each preparation is added to a dung heap by digging 50 cm deep holes with a distance of 2 meters from each other, except for the 507 preparation, which is stirred into 5 liters of water and sprayed over the entire compost surface. All preparations are thus used in homeopathic quantities. Each compost preparation is designed to guide a particular decomposition process in the composting mass.

One study found that the oak bark preparation improved disease resistance in zucchini.[26]

Astronomical planting calendar

The approach considers that there are astronomical influences on soil and plant development, specifying, for example, what phase of the moon is most appropriate for planting, cultivating or harvesting various kinds of crops.[28] This aspect of biodynamics has been termed "astrological" in nature.[29]

Seed production

Biodynamic agriculture has focused on open pollination of seeds (permitting farmers to grow their own seed) and the development of locally adapted varieties. The seed stock is not controlled by large, multinational seed companies.[30]

Trademark protection of term biodynamic

The term Biodynamic is a trademark held by the Demeter association of biodynamic farmers for the purpose of maintaining production standards used both in farming and processing foodstuffs.(This is not a trademark held privately in New Zealand) The trademark is intended to protect both the consumer and the producers of biodynamic produce. Demeter International is an organization of member countries; each country has its own Demeter organization which is required to meet international production standards (but can also exceed them). The original Demeter organization was founded in 1928; the U.S. Demeter Association was formed in the 1980s and certified its first farm in 1982. In France, Biodivin certifies biodynamic wine.[31] In Egypt, SEKEM has created the Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA), an association that provides training for farmers to become certified.[32]

Studies of efficacy

Studies have compared biodynamic farming methods to both other organic methods and to conventional methods. Most studies have found that biodynamic farms have soil quality significantly better than conventionally farmed soils but comparable to the soil quality achieved by other organic methods; the decisive factor is likely to be the use of compost.[33] Studies of yields differ in their conclusions, and have found:

  • A long-term study conducted at a commercial vineyard in California compared vineyard blocks treated with biodynamic preparations alongside those tended with general organic farming methods, to examine effects upon soil and crop quality. "No differences were found in soil quality" during the first six years of the study, and analyses of other indicators including the yield per vine, clusters per vine, cluster and berry weight also showed there were no differences. The study did find a statistically significant (p-value < 0.05) difference in the yield-to-pruning weight ratio, indicating an "ideal vine balance for producing high-quality wine grapes" for the biodynamically treated crop, but noted the control vines had been "slightly overcropped". In one particular year of the study the biodynamically treated wine grapes had significantly higher Brix and notably higher total phenols and anthocyanins. In conclusion, the study found that biodynamic preparations "may affect" the vine canopy and chemistry, but showed no effects on the soil and tissue nutrient parameters measured in the study.[34]
  • Decomposition was significantly faster in plots which received farmyard manure (FYM) treated with biodynamic preparations than in plots which received no FYM, FYM without preparations or FYM with an alternative preparation. "The application of completely prepared FYM led to significantly higher biomass and abundance of endogeic or anecic earthworms than in plots where non-prepared FYM was applied."[35]
  • A 21-year study by Mäder et al for the FiBL Institute in Switzerland compared the agronomic and ecological performance of biodynamic, organic and two conventional systems. The study found that nutrient input in the biodynamic and organic systems was 34 to 51% lower than in the conventional systems but crop yield was only 20% lower on average, indicating more efficient production. The total energy (for fuel, production of mineral fertilizer and pesticides, etc.) to produce a dry-matter unit of crop was 20 to 56% lower for the biodynamic and organic systems, and pesticide input was reduced by 97% (by 100% for the biodynamic system). In regard to soil aggregate stability, soil pH, humus formation, soil calcium, microbial biomass, and faunal biomass (earthworms and arthropods), the biodynamic system was superior even to the organic system, which in turn had superior results over the conventional systems. With the significant increase in microbial diversity in the biodynamic and organic systems, there was a significant associated decrease in metabolic quotient, indicating a greater ability to use organic material for plant growth.[36][37][dead link]
    The methodology of this study was criticized as faulty by two wine writers: philosophy professor Douglass Smith and criminology professor Jesús Barquín. They said the methodology yielded false conclusions. Smith and Barquín wrote that, to separate the mystical elements in biodynamics from standard organic techniques, no comparison should ever be made between conventional and biodynamic farming, only between biodynamic and organic farming. They noted that the Mäder paper's supplemental materials, found online but not in the published paper, described significant differences between the biodynamic and the organic methodology; for instance, unspecified chemicals were added to the organic farm's compost, possibly leading to its slightly poorer performance.[38][39]
  • Biodynamic preparations increase the soil organic matter content.[40]
  • A further study investigated whether biodynamic preparations had any effect on the yield and growth of lentil and wheat crops, weed populations and soil fertility in the short term. The study found that "[i]n general, soils and crops treated with biodynamic preparations showed few differences from those not treated". Plots tended with biodynamically treated compost produced results for yield, crop quality and soil fertility that were the same to those tended with non-biodynamic composts and NPK fertilizers. Some alteration was observed in the nitrogenous chemistry of the soil and grain where biodynamic field sprays were applied, however the study did not ascribe or discern any biological significance to the difference. Among the variables considered by the study, some measured outcomes correlated with biodynamic field spray usage, including a higher per-unit biomass yield ratio for lentils and a lowering of carbon and crude protein contents in wheat grains. The study's conclusion remarked that "any additional short-term benefits from biodynamic preparations remain questionable."[41]
  • Minor effects for the field sprays on the carbon content and soil microbial fatty acid profile, but no effects for the compost preparations[42]
  • A 1993 study compared soil quality and financial performance of Biodynamic and conventional farms in New Zealand. The study reported that, "The Biodynamic farms proved in most enterprises to have soils of higher biological and physical quality: significantly greater in organic matter, content and microbial activity, more earthworms, better soil structure, lower bulk density, easier penetrability, and thicker topsoil."[43] The biodynamic farms were just as financially viable on a per hectare basis.[43] The study compared biodynamic farms with adjacent conventional farms, but didn't attempt to compare farms of similar size, or with similar crops.

Criticism

Biodynamic agriculture has been criticized as pseudoscience by scholars. In a 2002 newspaper editorial, Peter Treue, a researcher with the University of Kiel, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience and argued that similar or equal results can be obtained using standard organic farming principles. He wrote that the biodynamic preparations more resemble alchemy or magic akin to geomancy.[44]

In a 1994 analysis, Holger Kirchmann, a soil researcher with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, concluded that Steiner's instructions were occult and dogmatic, and cannot contribute to the development of alternative or sustainable agriculture and that many of Steiner's statements are not provable because scientifically clear hypotheses cannot be made from his descriptions (for example, it is hard to prove that one has harnessed "cosmic forces" in the foods). Kirchmann asserted that when methods of biodynamic agriculture were tested scientifically, the results were unconvincing.[45] Further, in a 2004 overview of biodynamic agriculture, Linda Chalker-Scott, a researcher at Washington State University, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience, writing that Steiner did not use scientific methods to formulate his theory of biodynamics, and that the later addition of valid organic farming techniques has "muddled the discussion" of Steiner's original idea. Based on the scant scientific testing of biodynamics, Chalker-Scott concluded "no evidence exists" that homeopathic preparations improve the soil.[46]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Andrew Christopher Lorand. Biodynamic Agriculture—A Paradigmatic Analysis. Pennsylvania State University, Department of Agricultural and Extension Education. 1996 PhD Dissertation.
  2. ^ Diver (1999), "Community Supported Agriculture"
  3. ^ a b Kirchmann, H.; Thorvaldsson, G.; Bergstrom, L.; Gerzabek, M.; Andren, O.; Eriksson, L.O.; Winninge, M. (2008). "Fundamentals of organic agriculture" (PDF). Organic Crop Production--Ambitions and Limitations. Retrieved 2009-07-01.
  4. ^ Diver (1999, Abstract).
  5. ^ Richard Harwood, former C.S. Mott Chair for Sustainable Agriculture at Michigan State University, calls the biodynamic movement the "first organized and well-defined movement of growers and philosophies [in sustainable agriculture] (Harwood 1990; p.6).
  6. ^ Saving the World with Biodynamic Farming, ISIS report 16/01/08. Accessed December 18, 2009.
  7. ^ Paull, John (2011). "Organics Olympiad 2011: Global Indices of Leadership in Organic Agriculture". Journal of Social and Development Sciences. 1 (4): 144–150. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  8. ^ The Biodynamic Agricultural Association (n.d.)"An astronomical calendar is used to determine auspicious, planting, cultivating and harvesting times" (as opposed to an astrological calendar).
  9. ^ Goode, Jamie (2006-03-01). The science of wine: from vine to glass. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520248007. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  10. ^ Chalker-Scott, Linda (2004). "The Myth of Biodynamic Agriculture" (PDF). Master Gardener Magazine. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  11. ^ Smith, D. (2006). "On Fertile Ground? Objections to Biodynamics" (PDF). The World of Fine Wine (12): 108–113. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  12. ^ Kirchmann, Holger (1994). "Biological dynamic farming--an occult form of alternative agriculture?". J. Agric. Environ. Ethics. 7 (2): 173–187. doi:10.1007/BF02349036. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  13. ^ According to account given in Diver (1999), "Introduction".
  14. ^ Paull, John (2011) "Attending the First Organic Agriculture Course: Rudolf Steiner’s Agriculture Course at Koberwitz, 1924", European Journal of Social Sciences, 21(1):64-70.
  15. ^ a b Paull, John (2011) "Biodynamic Agriculture: The Journey from Koberwitz to the World, 1924-1938", Journal of Organic Systems, 2011, 6(1):27-41.
  16. ^ Paull, John (2011) "The Secrets of Koberwitz: The diffusion of Rudolf Steiner’s Agriculture Course and the founding of Biodynamic Agriculture", Journal of Social Research & Policy, 2(1):19-29.
  17. ^ Timeline of environmental movement in Australia "1927 Ernesto Genoni introduces biodynamic farming methods to Australia." - History - The Australian Greens
  18. ^ Biodynamic Research Institute (BDRI)
  19. ^ "A Brief History of Bio-dynamics - an Australian Perspective" Biodynamic Growing No 1 Dec 2003
  20. ^ Paull, John (2011) "The Betteshanger Summer School: Missing link between biodynamic agriculture and organic farming", Journal of Organic Systems, 2011, 6(2):13-26.
  21. ^ Paull, John (2010) "From France to the World: The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)", Journal of Social Research & Policy, 1(2):93-102.
  22. ^ Biodynamic Agriculture Dept. of the University of Kassel
  23. ^ Paull, John (2011) "Organics Olympiad 2011: Global Indices of Leadership in Organic Agriculture", Journal of Social and Development Sciences, 1(4):144-150.
  24. ^ Diver (1999), "Introduction".
  25. ^ Mäder, Paul; Fliessbach, Andreas; Dubois, David; Gunst, Lucie; Fried, Padruot; Niggli, Urs (2002). "Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming". Science. 296 (5573): 1694–1697. doi:10.1126/science.1071148. PMID 12040197.
  26. ^ a b J. Reeve, Effects of Biodynamic Preparations on Soil, Winegrape and Compost Quality on a California Vineyard, M.S. thesis, Washington State University Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Dec. 2003
  27. ^ Trewavas, A. (2004). "A critical assessment of organic farming-and-food assertions with particular respect to the UK and" (PDF). Crop protection. 23 (9): 757–781. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2004.01.009. Retrieved 2009-07-01.
  28. ^ Biodynamic Tea (2007), "Beyond Organic Biodynamic Tea".
  29. ^ Diver (1999), "Planetary Influences".
  30. ^ Nemoto, K. and Nishikawa, Y., "Seed supply system for alternative agriculture: Case study of biodynamic agriculture in Germany", Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, Shinshu University, Japan, Mar. 2007, pp. 73-81
  31. ^ Paul Gregutt, "Not Woo-Woo Anymore: More and more wineries are tasting the benefits of saving the soil", The Seattle Times, November 20, 2005. Reprint copy. Accessed 2008-01-26.
  32. ^ Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA). Accessed 2008-01-26.
  33. ^ Carpenter-Boggs et al. "Organic and Biodynamic Management: Effects on Soil Biology". Soil Science Society of America Journal 64(5):1651-1659 (2000)
  34. ^ Reeve, et al. (2005).
  35. ^ Zaller, Johann G. (2004). "Effects of traditional and biodynamic farmyard manure amendment on yields, soil chemical, biochemical and biological properties in a long-term field experiment". Biology and Fertility of Soils. 40 (4): 222–229. doi:10.1007/s00374-004-0772-0. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Mäder, et al. (2002).
  37. ^ FiBL trial in Switzerland. Accessed 2008-01-26.
  38. ^ Smith, Douglass; Barquín, Jesús (2006). "On Fertile Ground? Objections to Biodynamics" (PDF). The World of Fine Wine (12): 108–113. ISSN 1743-503X.
  39. ^ Smith, Douglass; Barquín, Jesús (2007). "Biodynamics in the Wine Bottle". Skeptical Inquirer. 31 (6). ISSN 0194-6730. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  40. ^ Raupp, Dr Joachim (2001) "Manure fertilization for soil organic matter maintenance and its effects upon crops and the environment, evaluated in a long-term trial." In: Rees, PhD R.M.; Ball, PhD B.C.; Campbell, PhD C.D. and Watson, PhD C.A. (Eds.) Sustainable Management of Soil Organic Matter. CABI Publishing, chapter 4.10, pp. 301-308.
  41. ^ Carpenter-Boggs, et al. (2000b).
  42. ^ Carpenter-Boggs, L (2000). "Effects of biodynamic preparations on compost development". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 64: 1651–1658. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ a b Reganold, et al. (1993).
  44. ^ Treue, Peter (13 March 2002). "Blut und Bohnen: Der Paradigmenwechsel im Künast-Ministerium ersetzt Wissenschaft durch Okkultismus". Die Gegenwart (in German). Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. Archived from the original on 17 April 2003. Retrieved 15 November 2011. (Translation: "Blood and Beans: The paradigm shift in the Ministry of Renate Künast replaced by science occultism")
  45. ^ Kirchmann, Holger (1994). "Biological dynamic farming--an occult form of alternative agriculture?". J. Agric. Environ. Ethics. 7 (2): 173–187. doi:10.1007/BF02349036.
  46. ^ Chalker-Scott, Linda. "The Myth of Biodynamic Agriculture" (PDF). Puyallup Research and Extension Center, Washington State University.

References

Biodynamic Agricultural Association (n.d.). "How does the Calendar work?". Biodynamic Frequently Asked Questions. The Biodynamic Agricultural Association (UK). Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
Burkitt, L.L. (2007a). "Comparing irrigated biodynamic and conventionally managed dairy farms. 1. Soil and pasture properties". Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 47 (5). Melbourne, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Publishing: 479–488. doi:10.1071/EA05196. OCLC 12490171. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Burkitt, L.L. (2007b). "Comparing irrigated biodynamic and conventionally managed dairy farms. 2. Milk production and composition and animal health". Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 47 (5). Melbourne, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Publishing: 489–494. doi:10.1071/EA06085. OCLC 12490171. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Carpenter-Boggs, Lynne (2000a). "Effects of Biodynamic Preparations on Compost Development" (PDF). Biological Agriculture and Horticulture. 17: 313–328. ISSN 0144-8765. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Carpenter-Boggs, Lynne (25 March 2000). "Biodynamic preparations: Short-term effects on crops, soils, and weed populations". American Journal of Alternative Agriculture. 15 (3): 110–118. doi:10.1017/S0889189300008614. ISSN 0889-1893. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
Carpenter-Boggs, Lynne (1 September 2000). "Organic and Biodynamic Management: Effects on Soil Biology". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 64 (5). Soil Science Society of America: 1651–1659. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
Chalker-Scott, Linda (2004). "The Myth of Biodynamic Agriculture" (PDF). Horticultural Myths. Washington State University Puyallup Research & Extension Center. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
Diver, Steve (1999). "Biodynamic Farming & Compost Preparation (ATTRA Publication #IP137)". ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
Harwood, Richard R. (1990). "A History of Sustainable Agriculture". In Clive A. Edwards, Rattan Lal, Patrick Madden, Robert H. Miller and Gar House (Eds.) (ed.). Sustainable Agricultural Systems. Ankeny, IA: Soil and Water Conservation Society. pp. 3–19. ISBN 0-935734-21-X. OCLC 20933949.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
Kirchmann, Holger (1994). "Biological dynamic farming — An occult form of alternative agriculture?". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 7 (2). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer; Kluwer Academic Publishers: 173–187. doi:10.1007/BF02349036. OCLC 41569500.
Koepf, Herbert (2009). Research in Biodynamic Agriculture: Methods and Results. Biodynamic Farm and Gardening Association. ISBN 0-938250-34-5.
Kristiansen, Paul (2006). "Overview of organic agriculture". In Paul Kristiansen, Acram Taji and John Reganold (Eds.) (ed.). Organic Agriculture: A Global Perspective (online sample reprint ed.). Collingwood, VIC: CSIRO Publishing. pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-0-643-09090-3. OCLC 71801183. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Lorand, Andrew (1996). "Biodynamic Agriculture — A paradigmatic analysis". Ph.D. thesis. Pennsylvania State University. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Mäder, Paul (2002). "Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming" (Summary). Science. 296 (5573). New York, NY: American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1694–1697. doi:10.1126/science.1071148. OCLC 1644869. PMID 12040197. Retrieved 2007-10-11. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) [dead link]
Martinez, A.W. (1952-05-31). "The City With Golden Garbage" (Reprint). Collier's Weekly. Springfield, OH: Crowell-Collier. OCLC 8755061. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
Nastati, Enzo (2010). "Commentary on Dr Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course". MM Publications.
Paull, John (2011). "Attending the First Organic Agriculture Course: Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course at Koberwitz, 1924" (PDF). European Journal of Social Sciences, 2011, 21(1):64-70. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Paull, John (2011). "Biodynamic Agriculture: The Journey from Koberwitz to the World, 1924-1938" (PDF). Journal of Organic Systems, 2011, 6(1):27-41. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Paull, John (2011). "The Secrets of Koberwitz: The Diffusion of Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course and the Founding of Biodynamic Agriculture". Journal of Social Research & Policy, 2(1):19-29. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Paull, John (2011). "Organics Olympiad 2011: Global Indices of Leadership in Organic Agriculture" (PDF). Journal of Social and Development Sciences, 2011,1(4):144-150. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Pfeiffer, Ehrenfried (2006) [1938]. Soil Fertility, Renewal and Preservation: Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening. Delhi, India: Asiatic Publishing House. ISBN 8-18706-773-X.
Raupp, J. (1998). "Biodynamic Approaches in Research and Development". Research Methodologies in Organic Farming. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
Reeve, Jennifer R. (December 1, 2005). "Soil and Winegrape Quality in Biodynamically and Organically Managed Vineyards". American Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 56 (4). Davis, CA: American Society for Enology and Viticulture: 367–376. ISSN 0002-9254. OCLC 60652537. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Reganold, John P. (1993). "Soil quality and financial performance of biodynamic and conventional farms in New Zealand". Science. 260 (5106): 344–349. doi:10.1126/science.260.5106.344. PMID 17838252. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Schilthuis, Willy (2003). Biodynamic Agriculture. Floris Books. ISBN 0863153976.
Treue, Peter (2002-03-13). "Blut und Bohnen: Der Paradigmenwechsel im Künast-Ministerium ersetzt Wissenschaft durch Okkultismus". Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung - Die Gegenwart. 62 (12). Frankfurt-am-Main: FAZ. Archived from the original (Reprint. Translated title: "Blood and Beans: The paradigm-shift in the [Renate] Künast [Consumer] Ministry [Green party] replaces science with occultism") on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-10-05. Template:De icon

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biodynamic_agriculture&oldid=461032623"