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Constantine I
Emperor of the Roman Empire
Head of Constantine's colossal statue at the Capitoline Museums
Reign306 - 312 (hailed as Augustus in the West, officially made Caesar by Galerius with Severus as Augustus, by agreement with Maximian, refused relegation to Caesar in 309);
312 - 324 (undisputed Augustus in the West);
324 - 22 May 337 (emperor of the whole empire)
PredecessorConstantius Chlorus
SuccessorConstantine II, Constantius II and Constans
Burial
Constantinople
Wives
IssueConstantina, Helena, Crispus, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans
Names
Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus
DynastyConstantinian
FatherConstantius Chlorus
MotherHelena

Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus[2] (27 February c. 280[1] – 22 May 337 AD), commonly known as Constantine I, (among Roman Catholics) and Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine (among Eastern Orthodox Christians), was a Roman Emperor, proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 306, who ruled an ever-growing portion of the Roman Empire until his death. Best known for being the first Christian Roman Emperor, his Edict of Milan put an end to institutionalized persecution of Christians in the Empire.

The Byzantine liturgical calendar, observed by the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches of Byzantine rite, lists both Constantine and his mother Helena as saints. Although he is not included in the Latin Church's list of saints, which does recognize several other Constantines as saints, he is revered under the title "The Great" for his contributions to Christianity.

In 324, Constantine announced his decision to transform Byzantium into Nova Roma and on May 11, 330, he officially proclaimed the city the new capital of the Roman Empire. The city was renamed Constantinople, The City of Constantine, after Constantine's death in 337. It would remain the capital of the Byzantine Empire for over a thousand years, a reign interrupted only briefly by its 1204 sacking and occupation in the Fourth Crusade, until it finally fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

Life

Early life

Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus was born in Naissus (modern Niš, Serbia) in the province of Moesia Superior on 27 February ca. 280 to Roman general and later Western Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus, and his first wife St. Helena. Helena, who played a very influential role throughout her son's life, was of modest background; Ambrose writes that she worked in an inn. His father left his mother around 292 to marry Flavia Maximiana Theodora, daughter (or step-daughter) of the Western Roman Emperor Maximian, although Constantine fully reinstated his mother, St. Helena, as "Augusta, mother of Caesar" after his father's death. Theodora would give birth to six half-siblings of Constantine, including Julius Constantius.[3]

Young Constantine received a formidable education, became a fluent speaker of Greek, and was adept in philosophy.[4] He served at the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia, after the appointment of his father as one of the two caesares (junior emperors) of the Tetrarchy in 293. In 305, both augusti (senior emperors), Diocletian and Maximian, abdicated, and Constantius succeeded to Maximian's position of western augustus. Although two legitimate sons of emperors were available (Constantine and Maxentius, the son of Maximian), both of them were ignored in the transition of power. Instead, Severus and Maximinus Daia were made caesares. Constantine subsequently left Nicomedia to join his father in the Roman Gaul; however, Constantius fell sick during an expedition against the Picts of Caledonia, and died on July 25, 306 in Eboracum (York). The general Chrocus, of Alamannic descent, and the troops loyal to Constantius' memory immediately proclaimed Constantine an augustus. Under the Tetrarchy, Constantine's succession was of dubious legitimacy. While Constantius as senior emperor could "create" a new caesar, Constantine's (or, his troops') claim to the title of augustus ignored the system of succession established in 305. Accordingly, Constantine asked Galerius, the eastern augustus, to be recognized as heir to his father's throne. Galerius granted him the title of caesar, confirming Constantine's rule over his father's territories, and promoted Severus to augustus of the West.[5]

Ruler of the West

Bronze statue of Constantine I in York, England, near the spot where he was proclaimed Emperor in 306

Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, the Germanic provinces, and Spain. He therefore commanded one of the largest Roman armies, stationed along the important Rhine frontier. While Gaul was one of the richer regions of the empire, it had suffered much during the Crisis of the Third Century. Many areas were depopulated, and the cities ruined.[citation needed] During his years in Gaul, from 306 to 316, Constantine continued his father's efforts to secure the Rhine frontier and rebuild the Gallic provinces. His main residence during that time was Trier.[6]

Immediately after his promotion to emperor, Constantine abandoned his father's British campaign and returned to Gaul to quell an uprising by Franks. Another expedition against Frankish tribes followed in 308. After this victory, he began to build a bridge across the Rhine at Cologne to establish a permanent stronghold on the right bank of the river. A new campaign in 310 had to be abandoned because of Maximian's rebellion described below. The last of Constantine's wars on the Rhine frontier took place in 313, after his return from Italy, and saw him again victorious.[7]

Constantine's main goal was stability, which he tried to achieve by immediate, often brutal, punitive expeditions against rebellious tribes, demonstrating his military power by conquering the enemies on their own side of the Rhine frontier, and slaughtering many prisoners during games in the arena. The strategy proved successful, as the Rhine frontier remained relatively quiet during the rest of his reign.

In the interior conflicts of the Tetrarchy, Constantine tried to remain neutral. In 307, senior emperor Maximian (recently returned to the political scene after his abdication in 305) visited Constantine to get his support in the war of Maxentius, his son, against Severus and Galerius. Constantine married Maximian's daughter Fausta to seal the alliance and was promoted to Augustus by Maximian. He did not interfere on Maxentius' behalf, though.[8]

Maximian returned to Gaul in 308 after he had failed to depose his son. Later that year, at the conference of Carnuntum between Diocletian, Galerius and Maximian, Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine reduced to caesar. In 310, Maximian became involved in a conspiracy to have his son-in-law murdered when Constantine came back from campaigning against the Franks. The rebellion was quickly quelled once Constantine found out, and Maximian was killed or forced to commit suicide. Both Constantine and Maximinus Daia were disappointed over their relegation to caesar and Licinius' appointment, and subsequently defied that ruling and styled themselves Augustus, which was granted to them by Galerius in 310, thus officially creating four Augusti. With Galerius' death in 311, the last ruler with enough authority interested in continuing the tetrarchy left the stage, and the system rapidly declined. In the struggle for power that ensued, Constantine allied himself with Licinius, while Maximinus approached Maxentius, who was still officially regarded as an usurper.[9]

312 to 324

Early in 312, Constantine crossed the Alps with his army and attacked Maxentius. He quickly conquered Northern Italy in the battles of Turin and Verona and then moved on to Rome. There Constantine with an army of 100,000 men (90,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry)[10] defeated Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, which resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire Western Roman Empire. During this epic battle Constantine had his soldiers place on their shields what Christians believed was the labarum symbol, although there is a dispute between historians whether this design was of clear Christian, ancient paganistic (solar) or of that date's astronomical origins.[11]. The labarum and associated motto In Hoc Signo Vinces (in this sign, you will conquer) were said to have resulted from a vision by Constantine at Saxa Rubra, inspiring his eventual conversion to Christianity. During the next years, he gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy.

In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan, officially granting full tolerance to all religions in the empire, especially Christianity.[12] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus Daia had crossed the Bosporus and invaded Licinian territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, though, and either in 314 or 316, Constantine and Licinius fought against one another in the war of Cibalae, with Constantine (with 30,000 men) being victorious[13]. They clashed again in the Battle of Campus Ardiensis in 317, and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II, and Licinius' son Licinianus were made caesars.[14]

In the year 320, Licinius reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began another persecution of the Christians.[15]. It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Around AD 323, Constantine I defeated Licinius's fleet with 200 war galleys.[13] Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient faith of Paganism. Constantine and his Franks marched under the Christian standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the battles of Adrianople, the Hellespont, and at Chrysopolis.[16]

cameo depicting Constantine the Great crowned by Constantinople

With the defeat and death of Licinius a year later (he was accused of plotting against Constantine and executed), Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.[17]

Founding of New Rome

Licinius' defeat represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginning of the role of the Eastern Roman Empire as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. Constantine rebuilted the city of Byzantium, and renamed it Nova Roma (New Rome) and issued special commemorative coins in 330 to honour the event. He provided Nova Roma with a Senate and civic offices similar to those of Rome. The new city was protected by the alleged True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city [1]. The figures of old gods were replaced and often assimilated into Christian symbolism. On the site of a temple to Aphrodite was built the new Church of the Holy Apostles. Generations later there was the story that a Divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. After his death, his capital was renamed Nova Roma Constantinopolitana (Constantinople in English, "Constantine's City").[17]

326–death

The Baptism of Constantine, as imagined by students of Raphael.

In 326, Constantine had his eldest son Crispus tried and executed, as he believed accusations that Crispus had been having an affair with Fausta, Constantine's second wife. A few months later he also had Fausta killed as the apparent source of these false accusations.

Eusebius reports that Constantine was baptized only shortly before his death in 337.[18] He moved from the Capital to a neighbouring thermal spa to take the waters, and thence to his mother's city of Helenopolis, where he prayed in the great church that she built in honour of Lucian the apostle. With this, he followed one custom at the time which postponed baptism until old age or death.[19] According to Jerome, Constantine's choice fell upon the bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia. Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles there.[20]

Succession

He was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena, wife of Emperor Julian.[21]

Constantine and Christianity

Main article: Constantine I and Christianity
Constantine the Great, mosaic in Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, c. 1000; (present-day Istanbul.

Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first Christian Roman Emperor. His reign was a turning point for the Christian Church. In 313 Constantine announced toleration of Christianity in the Edict of Milan, which removed penalties for professing Christianity (under which many had been martyred in previous persecutions of Christians) and returned confiscated Church property. Though a similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, then senior emperor of the Tetrarchy,[22] Constantine's lengthy rule, conversion, and patronage of the Church redefined the status of Christianity in the empire.

Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother St. Helena's Christianity in his youth, or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life.[23] Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian.[24] Writing to Christians, Constantine made clear that he believed he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian High God alone.[25] Throughout his rule, Constantine supported the Church financially, built various basilicas, granted privileges (e.g. exemption from certain taxes) to clergy, promoted Christians to high ranking offices, and returned property confiscated during the Great Persecution of Diocletian.[26] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old Saint Peter's Basilica.

The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the Christian Emperor in the Church; Constantine considered himself responsible to God for the spiritual health of his subjects, and thus he had a duty to maintain orthodoxy.[27] For Constantine, the emperor did not decide doctrine - that was the responsibility of the bishops - rather his role was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity.[28] The emperor ensured that God was properly worshipped in his empire; what proper worship consisted of was for the Church to determine.[29]

In 316, Constantine acted as a judge in a North African dispute concerning the heresy of Donatism. More significantly, in 325 he summoned the Council of Nicaea, effectively the first Ecumenical Council (unless the Council of Jerusalem is so classified), to deal mostly with the heresy of Arianism.

Constantine and the Jews

Constantine instituted several legislative measures regarding the Jews: they were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. Conversion of Christians to Judaism was outlawed. Congregations for religious services were restricted, but Jews were allowed to enter Jerusalem on Tisha B'Av, the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple. Constantine also enforced the prohibition of the First Council of Nicaea against celebrating Easter on the day before the Jewish Passover (nisan xiv), i.e. Quartodecimanism, see also Easter controversy.[30]

Reforms

Constantine's iconography and ideology

Coins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal iconography. During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of Mars and then (from 310) of Apollo as Sun god consistently appear on the reverse of the coinage.[citation needed] Mars had been associated with the Tetrarchy, and Constantine's use of this symbolism served to emphasize the legitimacy of his rule. After his breach with his father's old colleague Maximian in 309–310, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the third century emperor Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus (Claudius II), the hero of the Battle of Naissus (September, 268).[31]

Coin of Constantine, with depiction of the sun god Sol Invictus, holding a globe and right hand raised. The legend on the reverse reads SOLI INVICTO COMITI, to (Constantine's) "companion, the unconquered Sol".
Follis by Constantine. On the reverse, a labarum.

Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of Apollo-Sol Invictus. Constantine also promoted an association of himself with Sol Invictus, which was the last deity to appear on his coinage.[32] The reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his "companion, the unconquered Sol" — the inscriptions read SOLI INVICTO COMITI. The depiction represents Apollo with a solar halo, Helios-like, and the globe in his hands. In the 320s Constantine has a halo of his own. There are also coins depicting Apollo driving the chariot of the Sun on a shield Constantine is holding.[citation needed] Elements of this association remained even after Constantine's famous conversion to Christianity in 312. Thereafter, Christian symbolism, albeit ambiguous in some instances, began to appear in Imperial iconography.[33] A coin of ca 312, for example, shows the chi-rho, the first two letters of the name of Christ in Greek, on a helmet Constantine is wearing.[34]

An example of "staring eyes" on later Constantine coinage.

A continuation of the iconographic precedent can be seen in the larger eye of the coin portrait. This suggests a more fundamental shift in official images. Beginning in the late third century, portraits began away to become less realistic and more idealistic.[citation needed] The Emperor as Emperor, not merely as any particular individual, is of primary importance. The most common characteristics of this style are the broad jaw and cleft chin. The large staring eyes will loom larger as the fourth century progresses: compare the early fifth century silver coinage of Theodosius I.[citation needed]

Constantine's Courts and Appointees

Constantine respected cultivation and Christianity, and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men.[citation needed] Leading Roman families that refused Christianity were denied positions of power, yet two-thirds of his top government was non-Christian.[35]

"From Pagan temples Constantine had his statue removed. The repair of Pagan temples that had decayed was forbidden. These funds were given to the favored Christian clergy. Offensive forms of worship, either Christian or Pagan, were suppressed. At the dedication of Constantinople in 330 a ceremony half Pagan and half Christian was performed, in the market place, the Cross of Christ was placed over the head of the Sun-God's chariot. There was a singing of hymns."[36]

Constantine passed laws making the occupations of butcher and baker hereditary, and more importantly, supported converting the coloni (tenant farmers) into serfs — laying the foundation for European society during the Middle Ages.[citation needed]

Constantine's laws in many ways improved those of his predecessors, though they also reflect his more violent age.[citation needed] Some examples:

  • For the first time, girls could not be abducted (this may actually refer to elopements, which were considered kidnapping because girls could not legally consent to the elopement).
  • A punishment of death was mandated to anyone collecting taxes over the authorized amount.
  • A prisoner was no longer to be kept in total darkness, but must be given the outdoors and daylight.
  • A condemned man was definently allowed to die in the arena, but he could not be branded on his "heavenly beautified" face, just on the feet (because God made man in His image).
  • Slave "nurses" or chaperones caught allowing the girls they were responsible for to be seduced were to have molten lead poured down their throats.
  • Gladiatorial games were ordered to be eliminated in 325, although this had little real effect.[37]
  • A slave master's rights were limited, but a slave could still be beaten to death.
  • Crucifixion was abolished for reasons of Christian piety, but was replaced with hanging, to show there was Roman law and justice.
  • Easter could be publicly celebrated.

Constantine's legacy

Contemporary bronze head of Constantine.

Although he earned his honorific of "The Great" from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements and victories alone. In addition to reuniting the empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the tervingian Goths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334. In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire.[38]

The Byzantine Empire considered Constantine its founder and also the Holy Roman Empire reckoned him among the venerable figures of its tradition. In both East and West, Emperors were sometimes hailed as a "new Constantine". Most Eastern Christian churches consider Constantine a saint.[39] In the East he is sometimes called "isapostolos" or the "13th apostle"[2].

Legend and Donation of Constantine

Main article: Donation of Constantine

In later years, historical facts were clouded by legend. It was considered inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death-bed and by a bishop of questionable orthodoxy, and hence a legend emerged that Pope Sylvester I (314-335) had cured the pagan Emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptized after that and donated buildings to the Pope. In the eighth century, a document called the "Donation of Constantine" first appeared, in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over Rome, Italy and the Occident to the Pope. In the High Middle Ages, this document was used and accepted as the basis for the Pope's temporal power, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by the poet Dante Alighieri. The 15th century philologist Lorenzo Valla proved the document was indeed a forgery.

Constantine in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia

Because of his fame and his being proclaimed Emperor on the territory of Great Britain, Constantine was later also considered a British King. In the 11th century, the English writer Geoffrey of Monmouth published a fictional work called Historia Regum Britanniae, in which he narrates the supposed history of the Britons and their kings from the Trojan War, King Arthur and the Anglo-Saxon conquest. In this work, Geoffrey claimed that Constantine's mother Helena was actually the daughter of "King Cole", the mythical King of the Britons and eponymous founder of Colchester. A daughter for King Cole had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. Geoffrey also said that Constantine was proclaimed "King of the Britons" at York, rather than Roman Emperor.[40]

Notes

  1. ^ a b Birth dates vary but recent mainstream sources use "ca. 274" such as in "Constantine", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007 Online edition; and "Constantine", Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 3, 1983.
  2. ^ In (Latin Constantine's official imperial title was IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS, Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the pious, the fortunate, the undefeated. After 312, he added MAXIMVS ("the greatest"), and after 325 replaced ' ("undefeated") with VICTOR, as invictus reminded of Sol Invictus, the Sun God.
  3. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 12–13 & p. 71, figure 9.
  4. ^ Barnes, T.D., Constantine and Eusebius Cambridge, MA and London, 1981.
  5. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 14–15.
  6. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 16–17.
  7. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 15–16.
  8. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 15–16.
  9. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 15–16.
  10. ^ J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 38
  11. ^ Elizabeth DePalma Digeser, "The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome" (London, Cornell University Press, 2000) p. 122
  12. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, p. 24.
  13. ^ a b J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 47 Cite error: The named reference "Nor2" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  14. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 38–39.
  15. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 41–42.
  16. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 42–43.
  17. ^ a b MacMullen, 1969
  18. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 25 & 75–76.
  19. ^ In this period infant baptism, though practiced (usually in circumstances of emergency) had not yet become a matter of routine in the west. See Thomas M. Finn (1992), Early Christian Baptism and the Catechumenate: East and West Syria. See also Philip Rousseau (1999). "Baptism", in Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Post Classical World, ed. Peter Brown.
  20. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 75–76.
  21. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, p. 71, figure 9.
  22. ^ The edict granted Christians the right to practice their religion but did not restore any property to them; see Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum ("On the Deaths of the Persecutors")ch. 35-34
  23. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55
  24. ^ Peter Brown, The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 61
  25. ^ Peter Brown, The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60
  26. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55-56
  27. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 14-15
  28. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) q. 15
  29. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 16
  30. ^ Life of Constantine Vol. III Ch. XVIII by Eusebius; The Epistle of the Emperor Constantine, concerning the matters transacted at the Council, addressed to those Bishops who were not present
  31. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 22 & 62–63.
  32. ^ N. Hannestad Roman Art and Imperial Policy (Aarhus: 1988)
  33. ^ P. Bruun Studies in Constantinian numismatics : papers from 1954 to 1988
  34. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, p. 40 & p. 41, figure 4.
  35. ^ MacMullen 1969,1984, New Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908 Constantine
  36. ^ New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908
  37. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, p. 69.
  38. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, p. 72.
  39. ^ Pohlsander, Hans, The Emperor Constantine, pp. 83–87.
  40. ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, pp. 132–133.

References and further reading

  • The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), edited by Noel Lenski. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-81838-9; paperback, ISBN 0-521-52157-2).
  • Barnes, T.D. 1981 Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA, London.
  • Chuvin, Pierre; Archer, B. A. (translator). A Chronicle of the Last Pagans. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990 (ISBN 0-674-12970-9).
  • Chapman, John. "Donatists", The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909).
  • "Constantine", Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911).
  • Dodds, Eric Robertson. The Greeks and the Irrational. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964.
  • Dodds, Eric Robertson. Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety: Some Aspects of the Religious Experience from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine. Cambridge University Press, 1965.
  • Eusebius of Caesarea. The Life of the blessed Emperor Constantine in four books from 306 to 337.
  • Fowden, Garth. "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and Their Influence", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 84. (1994), pp. 146–170.
  • Herbermann, Charles G.; Grupp, Georg. "Constantine the Great", The Catholic Encyclopedia (1908).
  • Holloway, R. Ross. Constantine and Rome. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-10043-4).
  • Jones, A.H.M. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe. London: English University Press, 1948; London: Macmillan, 1949.
  • Kousoulas, D.G. The Life and Times of Constantine the Great: The First Christian Emperor. Bethesda, MD: Provost Books, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 1-887750-61-4).
  • Lactantius, (240–320). Of the Manner the in Which the Persecutors Died.
  • MacMullen, Ramsay. Constantine. Dial Press, 1969.
  • MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1984.
  • MacMullen, Ramsay. Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.
  • MacMullen, Ramsay. Enemies of the Roman Order: Treason, Unrest, and Alienation, Harvard, 1966.
  • Monmouth, Geoffrey of, The History of the Kings of Britain, translated by Lewis Thorpe. London: Penguin, 1966. ISBN 0-140-44170-0
  • Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
  • Pohlansander, Hans. The Emperor Constantine. London & New York: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-13178-2
  • Rassias, Vlassis R. Es Edafos Ferein, 2nd edition. Athens, 2000 (ISBN 960-7748-20-4).
  • Wilken, Robert L., Christians As the Romans Saw Them. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1436.

See also

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Preceded by Roman Emperor
306–337
with Galerius, Licinius and Maximinus Daia 		Succeeded by

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