Demographic history of Jerusalem
Jerusalem's population size and composition has shifted many times over its 5,000 year history. Since medieval times, the Old City of Jerusalem has been divided into Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Armenian quarters.
Most population data pre-1905 is based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as the Jerusalem District.[1] These estimates suggest that since the end of the Crusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-19th century. Between 1838 and 1876, a number of estimates exist which conflict as to whether Jews or Muslims were the largest group during this period, and between 1882 and 1922 estimates conflict as to exactly when Jews became a majority of the population.
In 2003, the total population of Jerusalem was 693,217, including 464,527 Jews and 228,690 "Arabs and others" (Choshen 1), that same year the population of the Old City was 3,965 Jews and 31,405 "Arabs and others" (Choshen 12).
Overview
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Jerusalemites are of varied national, ethnic and religious denominations and include European, Middle Eastern and African Jews, Georgians, Armenians, and Muslim, Protestant, Greeks, Greek Orthodox Arabs, Syrian Orthodox and Coptic Orthodox Arabs, among others.[2] Many of these groups were once immigrants or pilgrims that have over time become near-indigenous populations and claim the importance of Jerusalem to their faith as their reason for moving to and being in the city.[2]
Jerusalem's long history of conquests by competing and different powers has resulted in different groups living in the city many of whom have never fully identified or assimilated with a particular power, despite the length of their rule. Though they may have been citizens of that particular kingdom and empire and involved with civic activities and duties, these groups often saw themselves as distinct national groups (see Armenians, for example).[2] The Ottoman millet system, whereby minorities in the Ottoman Empire were given the authority to govern themselves within the framework of the broader system, allowed these groups to retain autonomy and remain separate from other religious and national groups. Some Palestinian residents of the city prefer to use the term Maqdisi or Qudsi as a Palestinian demonym.[3]
Historical population by religion
The tables below provide data on demographic change over time in Jerusalem, with an emphasis on the Jewish population. Readers should be aware that the boundaries of Jerusalem have changed many times over the years and that Jerusalem may also refer to a district or even a subdistrict under Ottoman, British, or Israeli administration, see e.g. Jerusalem District. Thus, year-to-year comparisons may not be valid due to the varying geographic areas covered by the population censuses.
1st century Jerusalem
The population of Jerusalem in the time of Josephus has been estimated to be around 80,000.[4] The total population of Pharisees, the forerunners of modern Rabbinic Judaism, was around 6,000 ("exakischilioi"), according to Josephus.[5]
During the First Jewish–Roman War(66–73 CE), the population of Jerusalem was estimated at 600,000 persons by Roman historian Tacitus, while Josephus, estimated that there were as many as 1,100,000, who were killed in the war.[6] Josephus also wrote that 97,000 were sold as slaves. After the Roman victory over the Jews, as many as 115,880 dead bodies were carried out through one gate between the months of Nisan and Tammuz.[7]
Arguing that the numbers given in historical sources were usually grossly exaggerated, Hillel Geva estimated from the archaeological evidence that the actual population of Jerusalem before its 70 CE destruction was at most 20,000.[8]
Middle Ages
| Year | Jews | Muslims | Christians | Total | Original Source | As quoted in |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| c. 1130 | 0 | 0 | 30,000 | 30,000 | ? | Runciman |
| 1267 | 2* | ? | ? | ? | Nahmanides, Jewish Scholar | |
| 1471 | 250* | ? | ? | ? | ? | Baron |
| 1488 | 76* | ? | ? | ? | ? | Baron |
| 1489 | 200* | ? | ? | ? | ? | Yaari, 1943[9] |
* Indicates families.
Ottoman era
| Year | Jews | Muslims | Christians | Total | Original Source | As quoted in |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1525–6 | 1,194 | 3,704 | 714 | 5,612 | Ottoman taxation registers* | Cohen and Lewis[10] |
| 1538–9 | 1,363 | 7,287 | 884 | 9,534 | Ottoman taxation registers* | Cohen and Lewis[10] |
| 1553–4 | 1,958 | 12,154 | 1,956 | 16,068 | Ottoman taxation registers* | Cohen and Lewis[10] |
| 1596–77 | ? | 8,740 | 252 | ? | Ottoman taxation registers* | Cohen and Lewis[10] |
| 1723 | 2,000 | ? | ? | ? | Van Egmont & Heyman, Christian travellers | [11] |
Modern era
Muslim "relative majority"
| Year | Jews | Muslims | Christians | Total | Original Source | As quoted in |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1806 | 2,000 | 4,000 | 2,774 | 8,774 | Ulrich Jasper Seetzen, Frisian explorer[12] | Sharkansky, 1996[13][14] |
| 1815 | 4,000-5,000 | ? | ? | 26,000 | William Turner[15] | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] |
| 1824 | 6,000 | 10,000 | 4,000 | 20,000 | Fisk and King, Writers | [16] |
| 1832 | 4,000 | 13,000 | 3,560 | 20,560 | Ferdinand de Géramb, French monk | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] |
Muslim or Jewish "relative majority"
Between 1838 and 1876, conflicting estimates exist regarding whether Muslims or Jews constituted a "relative majority" (or plurality) in the city.
Writing in 1841, the biblical scholar Edward Robinson noted the conflicting demographic estimates regarding Jerusalem during the period, stating in reference to an 1839 estimate by Moses Montefiore: "As to the Jews, the enumeration in question was made out by themselves, in the expectation of receiving a certain amount of alms for every name returned. It is therefore obvious that they here had as strong a motive to exaggerate their number, as they often have in other circumstances to underrate it."[17] In 1843, Reverend F.C. Ewald, a Christian traveler visiting Jerusalem, reported an influx of 150 Jews from Algiers. He wrote that there were now a large number of Jews from the coast of Africa who were forming a separate congregation.[18]
Between 1856 and 1880, Jewish immigration to Palestine more than doubled, with the majority settling in Jerusalem.[19] The majority of these immigrants were Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe, who subsisted on Halukka.[19]
In 1881–82, a group of Jews arrived from Yemen as a result of messianic fervor.[20][21] After living in the Old City for several years, they moved to the hills facing the City of David, where they lived in caves.[22] In 1884, the community, numbering 200, moved to new stone houses built for them by a Jewish charity.[23]
| Year | Jews | Muslims | Christians | Total | Original Source | As quoted in | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1838 | 3,000 | 4,500 | 3,500 | 11,500 | Edward Robinson | Edward Robinson, 1841[24] | |
| 1844 | 7,120 | 5,000 | 3,390 | 15,510 | Dr. Ernst-Gustav Schultz, Prussian consul[25] | ||
| 1846 | 7,515 | 6,100 | 3,558 | 17,173 | Titus Tobler, Swiss explorer[26] | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] | |
| 1849 | 2,084 families | ? | ? | ? | Moses Montefiore census[27] | ||
| 1850 | 13,860 | ? | ? | ? | Dr. Ascher, Anglo-Jewish Association | ||
| 1850 | 630* | 1,025* | 738* | 2,393* | ? | Alexander Scholch, 1985[28] | |
| 1851 | 5,580 | 12,286' | 7,488 | 25,354 | Official census[29] | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] | |
| 1853 | 8,000 | 4,000 | 3,490 | 15,490 | César Famin, French diplomat | Famin[30] | |
| 1856 | 5,700 | 10,300 | 3,000 | 18,000 | Ludwig August von Frankl, Austrian writer | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] | |
| 1857 | 7,000 | ? | ? | 10-15,000 | HaMaggid periodical | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] | |
| 1862 | 8,000 | 6,000 | 3,800 | 17,800 | HaCarmel periodical | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] | |
| 1864 | 8,000 | 4,000 | 2,500 | 15,000 | British Embassy | Dore Gold, 2009[31] | |
| 1866 | 8,000 | 4,000 | 4,000 | 16,000 | John Murray travel guidebook | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] | |
| 1867 | ? | ? | ? | 14,000 | Mark Twain, Innocents Abroad, Chapter 52 | [32] | |
| 1867 | 4 - 5,000 | 6,000 | ? | ? | Ellen-Clare Miller, Missionary | [33] | |
| 1869 | 3,200* | n/a | n/a | n/a | Rabbi H. J. Sneersohn | New York Times[34] | |
| 1869 | 9,000 | 5,000 | 4,000 | 18,000 | Hebrew Christian Mutual Aid Society | [35][36] | |
| 1869 | 7,977 | 7,500 | 5,373 | 20,850 | Liévin de Hamme, Franciscan missionary | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] | |
| 1871 | 4,000 | 13,000 | 7,000 | 20,560 | Karl Baedeker travel guidebook | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] | |
| 1876 | 4,000 | 13,000 | 3,560 | 20,560 | Bernhard Neumann [37] | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] |
Jews as absolute or relative majority
| Year | Jews | Muslims | Christians | Total | Original Source | As quoted in |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1882 | 9,000 | 7,000 | 5,000 | 21,000 | Wilson | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] |
| 1885 | 15,000 | 6,000 | 14,000 | 35,000 | Goldmann | Kark and Oren-Nordheim, 2001[14] |
| 1893 | >50% | ? | ? | ~40,000 | Albert Shaw, Writer | Shaw, 1894 [38] |
| 1896 | 28,112 | 8,560 | 8,748 | 45,420 | Calendar of Palestine for the year 5656 | Harrel and Stendel, 1974 |
| 1905 | 13,300 | 11,000 | 8,100 | 32,400 | 1905 Ottoman census (only Ottoman citizens) | U.O.Schmelz[39] |
| 1922 | 33,971 | 13,413 | 14,669 | 62,578 | Census of Palestine (British) | Harrel and Stendel, 1974 |
| 1931 | 51,200 | 19,900 | 19,300 | 90,053 | Census of Palestine (British) | Harrel and Stendel, 1974 |
| 1944 | 97,000 | 30,600 | 29,400 | 157,000 | ? | Harrel and Stendel, 1974 |
| 1967 | 195,700 | 54,963 | 12,646 | 263,307 | Harrel, 1974 |
After Jerusalem Law
| Year | Jews | Muslims | Christians | Total | Original Source | As quoted in |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1980 | 292,300 | ? | ? | 407,100 | Jerusalem Municipality[citation needed] | |
| 1985 | 327,700 | ? | ? | 457,700 | Jerusalem Municipality | |
| 1987 | 340,000 | 121,000 | 14,000 | 475,000 | Jerusalem Municipality | |
| 1990 | 378,200 | 131,800 | 14,400 | 524,400 | Jerusalem Municipality | |
| 1995 | 417,100 | 182,700 | 14,100 | 617,000 | Jerusalem Municipality | |
| 1996 | 421,200 | ? | ? | 602,100 | Jerusalem Municipality | |
| 2000 | 448,800 | ? | ? | 657,500 | Jerusalem Municipality | |
| 2004 | 464,500 | ? | ? | 693,200 | Jerusalem Municipality | |
| 2005 | 469,300 | ? | ? | 706,400 | Jerusalem Municipality | |
| 2007 | 489,480 | ? | ? | 746,300 | Jerusalem Municipality | |
| 2011 | 497,000 | 281,000 | 14,000 | 801,000 | Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |
As of 24 May 2006, Jerusalem's population was 724,000 (about 10% of the total population of Israel), of which 65.0% were Jews (c. 40% of whom live in East Jerusalem), 32.0% Muslim (almost all of whom live in East Jerusalem) and 2% Christian. 35% of the city's population were children under age of 15. In 2005, the city had 18,600 newborns.[40]
These official Israeli statistics refer to the expanded Israel municipality of Jerusalem. This includes not only the area of the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities, but also outlying Palestinian villages and neighbourhoods east of the city, which were not part of Jordanian East Jerusalem prior to 1967. Demographic data from 1967 to 2012 showed continues growth of Arab population, both in relative and absolute numbers, and the declining of Jewish population share in the overall population of the city. In 1967, Jews were 73.4% of city population, while in 2010 the Jewish population shrank to 64%. In the same period the Arab population increased from 26,5% in 1967 to 36% in 2010.[41][42] In 1999, the Jewish total fertility rate was 3.8 children per woman, while the Palestinian rate was 4.4. This led to concerns that Arabs would eventually become a majority of the city's population.
Between 1999 and 2010, the demographic trends reversed themselves, with the Jewish fertility rate increasing and the Arab rate decreasing. In addition, the number of Jewish immigrants from abroad choosing to settle in Jerusalem steadily increased. By 2010, there was a higher Jewish than Arab growth rate. That year, the city's birth rate was placed at 4.2 children for Jewish mothers, compared with 3.9 children for Arab mothers. In addition, 2,250 Jewish immigrants from abroad settled in Jerusalem. The Jewish fertility rate is believed to be still currently increasing, while the Arab fertility rate remains on the decline.[43]
Jerusalem had population of 801,000 in 2011, of which Jews compromised 497,000 (62%), Muslims 281,000 (35%), Christians 14,000 (around 2%) and 9,000 (1%) were not classified by religion.[44]
Demographic key dates
- 4500–3500 BCE: First settlement established near Gihon Spring (earliest archeological evidence)
- c. 1550–1400 BCE: Jerusalem becomes a vassal to the New Kingdom of Egypt
- c. 1000 BCE: King David attacks and captures Jerusalem, which becomes capital of the United Kingdom of Israel. (Biblical source only)
- 732 BCE: Jerusalem becomes a vassal of the Neo-Assyrian Empire[45]
- 587–6 BCE: Conquest of Jerusalem by Babylonians; Nebuchadnezzar II fought Pharaoh Apries's attempt to invade Judah. Jerusalem mostly destroyed including the First Temple, and the city's prominent citizens deportated to Babylon (Biblical sources only)
- 539 BCE: Cyrus the Great conquers Babylon, allowing Babylonian Jews to return from the Babylonian captivity to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple (Biblical sources only, see Cyrus (Bible) and The Return to Zion)
- 350 BCE: Jerusalem revolts against Artaxerxes III, who retakes the city and burns it down in the process. Jews who supported the revolt are sent to Hyrcania on the Caspian Sea.
- 332–200 BCE: Jerusalem capitulates to Alexander the Great, and is later incorporated into the Ptolemaic Kingdom (301BCE) and Seleucid Empire (200BCE).
- 175 BCE: Antiochus IV Epiphanes accelerates Seleucid efforts to eradicate the Jewish religion, outlaws Sabbath and circumcision, sacks Jerusalem and erects an altar to Zeus in the Second Temple after plundering it.
- 164 BCE: The Hasmoneans take control of part of Jerusalem, whilst the Seleucids retain control of the Acra (fortress) in the city and most surrounding areas.
- 63 BCE: Roman Empire under Pompey takes city
- 70 CE: Titus ends the major portion of Great Jewish Revolt and destroys Herod's Temple. The Sanhedrin is relocated to Yavne, and the city's leading Christians relocate to Pella
- 136: Hadrian formally reestablishes the city as Aelia Capitolina, and forbids Jewish and Christian presence in the city. Restrictions over Christian presence in the city are relaxed two years later.
- 324–25: Emperor Constantine holds the First Council of Nicaea and confirms status of Jerusalem as a Christian patriarchate.[46] A significant wave of Christian immigration to the city begins. The ban on Jews entering the city remains in force, but they are allowed to enter once a year to pray at the Western Wall on Tisha B'Av
- c. 380: Tyrannius Rufinus and Melania the Elder found the first monastery in Jerusalem on the Mount of Olives
- 614: Jerusalem falls to Jewish and Persian forces, specifically Khosrau II's Sassanid Empire until it is retaken in 629. This was a result of the Jewish revolt against Heraclius, a Jewish insurrection against the Byzantine Empire across the Levant.[47] The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is burned and much of the Christian population is massacred.[48][49]
- 636–7: Caliph Umar the Great conquers Jerusalem. Patriarch Sophronius and Umar are reported to have agreed the Covenant of Umar I, which guaranteed Christians freedom of religion but prohibited Jews from living in the city according to Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. The Armenian Apostolic Church began appointing its own bishop in Jerusalem. in 638.
- 797: Abbasid–Carolingian alliance – the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was restored and the Latin hospital was enlarged, encouraging Christian travel to the city.[50]
- 1009–30: Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim orders destruction of churches and synagogues in the empire, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Caliph Ali az-Zahir authorizes them rebuilt 20 years later.
- 1077: Jerusalem revolts against the rule of Emir Atsiz ibd Uvaq who retakes the city and massacres the local population.[51]
- 1099: First Crusaders capture Jerusalem and slaughter most of the city's Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. The Dome of the Rock is converted into a church.
- 1187: Saladin captures Jerusalem from Crusaders and allows Jewish and Orthodox Christian settlement. The Dome of the Rock is converted to an Islamic center of worship again.
- 1229: A 10-year treaty is signed allowing Christians freedom to live in the unfortified city. The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places.
- 1244: Mercenary army of Khwarezmians destroyed the city.
- 1260: Jerusalem raided by the Mongols under Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa. Hulagu Khan sends a message to Louis IX of France that Jerusalem remitted to the Christians under the Franco-Mongol Alliance
- 1267: Nahmanides goes to Jerusalem and prays at the Western Wall. Reported to have found only two Jewish families in the city
- 1482: The visiting Dominican priest Felix Fabri described Jerusalem as "a collection of all manner of abominations". As "abominations" he listed Saracens, Greeks, Syrians, Jacobites, Abyssianians, Nestorians, Armenians, Gregorians, Maronites, Turcomans, Bedouins, Assassins, a sect possibly Druzes, Mamelukes, and "the most accursed of all", Jews. Only the Latin Christians "long with all their hearts for Christian princes to come and subject all the country to the authority of the Church of Rome".
- 1517: The Ottoman Empire captures Jerusalem under Sultan Selim I who proclaims himself Caliph of the Islamic world
- 1604: First Protectorate of missions agreed, in which the Christian subjects of Henry IV of France were free to visit the Holy Places of Jerusalem. French missionaries begin to travel to Jerusalem.
- 1700: Judah the Pious and 1,000 followers settle in Jerusalem.
- 1774: The Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca is signed giving Russia the right to protect all Christians in Jerusalem.
- 1821: Greek War of Independence – Jerusalem's Christian population (the majority being Greek Orthodox), were forced by the Ottoman authorities to relinquish their weapons, wear black and help improve the city's fortifications
- 1837: Galilee earthquake of 1837 results in Jews from Safed and Tiberias resettling in Jerusalem.
- 1839–40: Rabbi Judah Alkalai publishes "The Pleasant Paths" and "The Peace of Jerusalem", urging the return of European Jews to Jerusalem and Palestine.
- 1853–4: A treaty is signed confirming France and the Roman Catholic Church as the supreme authority in the Holy Land with control over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, contravening the 1774 treaty with Russia and triggering the Crimean War.
- 1860: The first Jewish neighborhood (Mishkenot Sha'ananim) is built outside the Old City walls, in an area later known as Yemin Moshe, by Moses Montefiore and Judah Touro.[52][53]
- 1862: Moses Hess publishes Rome and Jerusalem, arguing for a Jewish homeland in Palestine centered on Jerusalem
- 1873–75: Mea Shearim is built.
- 1882: The First Aliyah results in 35,000 Jewish immigrants entering the Palestine region
- 1901: Ottoman restrictions on Jewish immigration to and land acquisition in Jerusalem district take effect
- 1901–14: The Second Aliyah results in 40,000 Jewish immigrants entering the Palestine region
- 1917: The Ottomans are defeated at the Battle of Jerusalem during the World War I and the British Army takes control. The Balfour Declaration had been issued a month before.
- 1919–23: The Third Aliyah results in 35,000 Jewish immigrants entering the Mandatory Palestine region
- 1924–28: The Fourth Aliyah results in 82,000 Jewish immigrants entering the Mandatory Palestine region
- 1929–39: The Fifth Aliyah results in 250,000 Jewish immigrants entering the Mandatory Palestine region
- 1947–49: Palestine war led to displacement of Palestinian Arab and Jewish populations in the city and its division. All Jewish residents of the eastern part of the city were kicked out by Arab forces and the entire Jewish Quarter was destroyed.[54] Palestinian Arab villages such as Lifta, al-Mahila, Ayn Karim and Deir Yassin were depopulated.
- 1967: The Six-Day War results in East Jerusalem being captured by Israel and few weeks later expansion of the Israeli Jerusalem Municipality to East Jerusalem and some surrounding area. The Old City is captured by the IDF and the Moroccan Quarter, including 135 houses and the Al-Buraq mosque, is demolished, creating a plaza in front of the Western Wall. Israel declares Jerusalem unified and announces free access to holy sites of all religions.
- 2010: Demographic trends fully reverse themselves; Jews now have a higher fertility rate than Arabs, mainly due to very high birth rate among Haredi Jews.
References
- ^ Usiel Oskar Schmelz, in Ottoman Palestine, 1800-1914: studies in economic and social history, Gad G. Gilbar, Brill Archive, 1990 [1]
- ^ a b c Preserving Identity in the Holy City [dead link]
- ^ To Rule Jerusalem - Page 189, Richard Hecht - 2000
- ^ Estimating the Population of Ancient Jerusalem, Magen Broshi, BAR 4:02, Jun 1978
- ^ Antiquities of the Jews, 17.42
- ^ Josephus (The Wars Of The Jews Book VI Ch 9 Sec 3)
- ^ Josephus("B. J." v. 13, § 7)
- ^ Hillel Geva (2013). "Jerusalem's Population in Antiquity: A Minimalist View". Tel Aviv. 41 (2): 131–160.
- ^ Avraham Yaari, Igrot Eretz Yisrael, p. 98.(Tel Aviv, 1943)
- ^ a b c d Amnon Cohen and Bernard Lewis (1978). Population and Revenue in the Towns of Palestine in the Sixteenth Century. Princeton University Press. pp. 14–15, 94. ISBN 0-691-09375-X. The registers give counts of tax-paying households, bachelors, religious men, and disabled men. We followed Cohen and Lewis on taking 6 as the average household size, even though they call it "conjectural" and note that other scholars have suggested averages between 5 and 7.
- ^ Christian travelers Johann Aegidius Van Egmont and John Heyman, Jewish history timeline; Turkish/Ottoman Rule, 1517—1917
- ^ A Brief Account of the Countries Adjoining the Lake of Tiberias, the Jordan, and the Dead Sea
- ^ Sharkansky, Ira (1996). Governing Jerusalem: Again on the world's agenda. Wayne State University Press. p. 121. Retrieved 24 Dec 2010.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Kark, Ruth; Oren-Nordheim, Michal (2001). Jerusalem and its environs: quarters, neighborhoods, villages, 1800-1948. Wayne State University Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-8143-2909-8. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
- ^ Journal of a Tour in the Levant, Published by J. Murray, Item notes: v.2
- ^ Fisk and King, 'Description of Jerusalem,' in The Christian Magazine, July 1824, page 220. Mendon Association, 1824. (The figures are preceded by the comment "the following estimate seems to us as probably correct as any one we have heard". The authors also note that, "some think the Jews more numerous than the Mussulmans.")
- ^ Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea ..., Volume 2 page 86
- ^ Jerusalem Illustrated History Altas, Martin Gilbert, Jerusalem 1830-1850, p.37
- ^ a b Perpetual dilemma: Jewish religion in the Jewish State By S. Zalman Abramov, page 27
- ^ Tudor Parfitt (1997). The road to redemption: the Jews of the Yemen, 1900–1950. Brill's series in Jewish Studies, vol 17. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 53.
- ^ Nini, Yehuda. The Jews of the Yemen, 1800-1914. Taylor & Francis. pp. 205–207. ISBN 978-3-7186-5041-5.
- ^ Streetwise: Yemenite steps, Jerusalem Post
- ^ Man, Nadav (9 January 2010). "Behind the lens of Hannah and Efraim Degani – part 7". Ynet.
- ^ Edward Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea: a journal of travels in the year 1838, Volume 2, 1841, page 85
- ^ Jerusalem, Eine Vorlesung, pages 33-34 (42-43 in the electronic copy)
- ^ Bibliographia geographica Palaestinae: zunächst kritische Uebersicht gedruckter und ungedruckter Beschreibungen der Reisen ins Heilige Land 265 pages
- ^ [2]
- ^ Scholch, Alexander (1985). "The Demographic Development of Palestine". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 17 (4): 485–505. doi:10.1017/s0020743800029445. JSTOR 163415.
- ^ Wolff, Press, "The Jewish Yishuv", pp 427-433, as quotes in Kark and Oren-Nordheim
- ^ L'Histoire de la rivalite et du protectorat des Eglises chretiennes en Orient, Paris: Firmin Didot freres, 1853, p49
- ^ Gold, Dore. The Fight For Jerusalme. Regnery publishing. p. 120. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
- ^ Mark Twain, Chapter 52, Innocents Abroad'
- ^ Ellen Clare Miller, Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. Page 126: 'It is difficult to obtain a correct estimate of the number of inhabitants of Jerusalem...'
- ^ New York Times, February 19, 1869 [3]; See also I. Harold Scharfman, The First Rabbi, Pangloss Press, 1988, page 524 which reports the figure as 3,100.
- ^ Burns, Jabez. Help-Book for Travelers to The East. 1870. Page 75
- ^ Hebrew Christian Mutual Aid Society. Almanack of 1869
- ^ Die heilige Stadt und deren Bewohner in ihren naturhistorischen, culturgeschichtlichen, socialen und medicinischen Verhältnissen Published by Der Verfasser, 512 pages
- ^ Review Of Reviews. Volume IX. Jan-Jun, 1894. Albert Shaw, Editor. Page 98. "The present population of Jerusalem is not far from forty thousand, and more than half are Jews."
- ^ Usiel Oskar Schmelz, in Ottoman Palestine, 1800-1914: studies in economic and social history, page 35, Gad G. Gilbar, Brill Archive, 1990 [4]
- ^ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics 2006 (heb)
- ^ Jerusalem: Facts and Trends 2011
- ^ http://jcpa.org/article/is-jerusalem-being-judaized/
- ^ http://www.jiis.org/.upload/pressrelease.pdf
- ^ "Selected Data on the Occasion of Jerusalem Day" (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 16 May 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
- ^ Chronology of the Israelite Tribes from The History Files (historyfiles.co.uk)
- ^ Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: First Nicaea: Canon VII: "Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia [i.e., Jerusalem] should be honored, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honor."; "It is very hard to determine just what was the “precedence” granted to the Bishop of Aelia, nor is it clear which is the "metropolis" referred to in the last clause. Most writers, including Hefele, Balsamon, Aristenus and Beveridge consider it to be Cæsarea; while Zonaras thinks Jerusalem to be intended, a view recently adopted and defended by Fuchs; others again suppose it is Antioch that is referred to."
- ^ [Sharkansky, Ira (1996). Governing Jerusalem: Again on the world's agenda. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 63.]
- ^ Hussey, J.M. 1961. The Byzantine World. New York, New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, p. 25.
- ^ Karen Armstrong. 1997. Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths. New York, New York: Ballantine Books, p. 229. ISBN 0-345-39168-3
- ^ Heck, Gene W. Charlemagne, Muhammad, and the Arab roots of capitalism. p. 172.
- ^ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. "Historic Cities of the Islamic World
- ^ https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/geo/mishkenot.html
- ^ http://www.mishkenot.org.il/en/secmain.asp?secid=1
- ^ http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/A8138AD15B0FCAC385256B920059DEBF
Bibliography
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- Salo Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Columbia University Press, 1983.
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{{cite web}}:|author=has generic name (help) - Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics information page
- Jerusalem: Jewish, Muslim, and Christian Population (1910-2000) at israelipalestinianprocon.org
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- United Nations (1997). "The Status of Jerusalem". UNISPAL. Division for Palestinian Rights. Prepared for, and under the guidance of, the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People. Retrieved February 26, 2006. [dead link]
- Mark Twain (1867). "Innocents Abroad". Retrieved Feb 9, 2014.