Silicon: Difference between revisions
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flint; silica. |
flint; silica. |
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[Origin: 1585–95; < L silex, s. silic- hard stone, flint, boulder] -->, ''silicis'' for [[flint]], flints), and was later mistaken by [[Humphry Davy]] in [[1800]] for a compound. In [[1811]] [[Gay-Lussac]] and [[Louis Jacques Thénard|Thénard]] probably prepared impure [[amorphous silicon]] through the heating of [[potassium]] with [[silicon tetrafluoride]]. In [[1824]], [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius|Berzelius]] prepared amorphous silicon using approximately the same method as Lussac. Berzelius also purified the product by repeatedly washing it. |
[Origin: 1585–95; < L silex, s. silic- hard stone, flint, boulder] -->, ''silicis'' for [[flint]], flints), and was later mistaken by [[Humphry Davy]] in [[1800]] for a compound. In [[1811]] [[Gay-Lussac]] and [[Louis Jacques Thénard|Thénard]] probably prepared impure [[amorphous silicon]] through the heating of [[potassium]] with [[silicon tetrafluoride]]. In [[1824]], [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius|Berzelius]] prepared amorphous silicon using approximately the same method as Lussac. Berzelius also purified the product by repeatedly washing it. |
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MY NAME IS MUFASSA |
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== Occurrence == |
== Occurrence == |
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Revision as of 13:47, 6 January 2009
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| Silicon | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Pronunciation | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Allotropes | see Allotropes of silicon | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Appearance | crystalline, reflective with bluish-tinged faces | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Standard atomic weight Ar°(Si) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Silicon in the periodic table | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Atomic number (Z) | 14 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Group | group 14 (carbon group) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Period | period 3 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Block | p-block | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electron configuration | [Ne] 3s2 3p2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electrons per shell | 2, 8, 4 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Physical properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Phase at STP | solid | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Melting point | 1687 K (1414 °C, 2577 °F) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Boiling point | 3538 K (3265 °C, 5909 °F) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Density (at 20° C) | 2.329085 g/cm3[3] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| when liquid (at m.p.) | 2.57 g/cm3 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of fusion | 50.21 kJ/mol | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of vaporization | 383 kJ/mol | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Molar heat capacity | 19.789 J/(mol·K) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vapor pressure
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Oxidation states | −4, −3, −2, −1, 0,[4] +1,[5] +2, +3, +4 (an amphoteric oxide) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electronegativity | Pauling scale: 1.90 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ionization energies |
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| Atomic radius | empirical: 111 pm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Covalent radius | 111 pm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Van der Waals radius | 210 pm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Other properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Natural occurrence | primordial | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Crystal structure | face-centered diamond-cubic (cF8) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Lattice constant |  | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal expansion | 2.556×10−6/K (at 20 °C)[3] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal conductivity | 149 W/(m⋅K) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electrical resistivity | 2.3×103 Ω⋅m (at 20 °C)[6] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Band gap | 1.12 eV (at 300 K) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Magnetic ordering | diamagnetic[7] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Molar magnetic susceptibility | −3.9×10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[8] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Young's modulus | 130–188 GPa[9] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Shear modulus | 51–80 GPa[9] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Bulk modulus | 97.6 GPa[9] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Speed of sound thin rod | 8433 m/s (at 20 °C) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Poisson ratio | 0.064–0.28[9] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mohs hardness | 6.5 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| CAS Number | 7440-21-3 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| History | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Naming | after Latin silex or silicis, meaning 'flint' | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Prediction | Antoine Lavoisier (1787) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Discovery and first isolation | Jöns Jacob Berzelius[10][11] (1823) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Named by | Thomas Thomson (1817) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Isotopes of silicon | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Silicon (Template:PronEng or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/, Latin: silicium) is the most common metalloid. It is a chemical element, which has the symbol Si and atomic number 14. The atomic mass is 28.0855. A tetravalent metalloid, silicon is less reactive than its chemical analog carbon. As the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, silicon very rarely occurs as the pure free element in nature, but is more widely distributed in dusts, planetoids and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. On Earth, silicon is the second most abundant element (after oxygen) in the crust,[13] making up 25.7% of the crust by mass.
Silicon has many industrial uses. Elemental silicon is the principal component of most semiconductor devices, most importantly integrated circuits or microchips. Silicon is widely used in semiconductors because it remains a semiconductor at higher temperatures than the semiconductor germanium and because its native oxide is easily grown in a furnace and forms a better semiconductor/dielectric interface than any other material.
In the form of silica and silicates, silicon forms useful glasses, cements, and ceramics. It is also a constituent of silicones, a class-name for various synthetic plastic substances made of silicon, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen, often confused with silicon itself.
Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces of it appear to be required by animals[citation needed]. It is much more important to the metabolism of plants, particularly many grasses, and silicic acid (a type of silica) forms the basis of the striking array of protective shells of the microscopic diatoms.
Notable characteristics
The outer electron orbitals (half filled subshell holding up to eight electrons) have the same structure as in carbon and the two elements are sometimes similar chemically. Even though it is a relatively inert element, silicon still reacts with halogens and dilute alkalis, but most acids (except for some hyper-reactive combinations of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid) do not affect it. Having four bonding electrons however gives it, like carbon, many opportunities to combine with other elements or compounds under the right circumstances.
Both silicon and (in certain aspects) carbon are semiconductors, readily either donating or sharing their four outer electrons allowing many different forms of chemical bonding. Pure silicon has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, since the number of free charge carriers increases with temperature. The electrical resistance of single crystal silicon significantly changes under the application of mechanical stress due to the piezoresistive effect.
In its crystalline form, pure silicon has a gray color and a metallic luster. It is similar to glass in that it is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping.
History
Silicon was first identified by Antoine Lavoisier in 1787 (as a component of the Latin silex, silicis for flint, flints), and was later mistaken by Humphry Davy in 1800 for a compound. In 1811 Gay-Lussac and Thénard probably prepared impure amorphous silicon through the heating of potassium with silicon tetrafluoride. In 1824, Berzelius prepared amorphous silicon using approximately the same method as Lussac. Berzelius also purified the product by repeatedly washing it.
MY NAME IS MUFASSA
Occurrence
Measured by mass, silicon makes up 25.7% of the Earth's crust and is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust, after oxygen. Pure silicon crystals are only occasionally found in nature; they can be found as inclusions with gold and in volcanic exhalations. Silicon is usually found in the form of silicon dioxide (also known as silica), and silicate.
Silica occurs in minerals consisting of (practically) pure silicon dioxide in different crystalline forms. Sand, amethyst, agate, quartz, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, jasper, and opal are some of the forms in which silicon dioxide appears. (They are known as "lithogenic", as opposed to "biogenic", silicas.)
Silicon also occurs as silicates (various minerals containing silicon, oxygen and one or another metal), for example feldspar. These minerals occur in clay, sand and various types of rock such as granite and sandstone. Asbestos, feldspar, clay, hornblende, and mica are a few of the many silicate minerals.
Silicon is a principal component of aerolites, which are a class of meteoroids, and also is a component of tektites, which are a natural form of glass.
See also Category:Silicate minerals
Isotopes
Silicon has numerous known isotopes, with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 44. 28Si (the most abundant isotope, at 92.23%), 29Si (4.67%), and 30Si (3.1%) are stable; 32Si is a radioactive isotope produced by argon decay. Its half-life has been determined to be approximately 170 years (0.21 MeV), and it decays by beta - emission to 32P (which has a 14.28 day half-life )[14] and then to 32S.
Compounds
Silicon forms binary compounds called silicides with many metallic elements whose properties range from reactive compounds e.g. magnesium silicide , Mg2Si through to high melting refractory compounds such as molybdenum disilicide, MoSi2.[15] Silicon carbide, SiC, (carborundum) is a hard, high melting solid and is the well known abrasive. Silane, SiH4, is a pyrophoric gas with a similar tetrahedral structure to methane, CH4. Additionally there is a range of catenated silicon hydrides that form a homologous series of compounds, SinH2n+2 where n = 2-8 (analogous to the alkanes).[16] These are all readily hydrolysed and are thermally unstable, particularly the heavier members.[16] Disilenes contain a silicon-silicon double bond (analogous to the alkenes) and are generally highly reactive requiring large substituent groups to stabilise them.[17] A disilyne with a silicon-silicon triple bond was first isolated in 2004, although as the compound is non-linear, the bonding is dissimilar to that in alkynes.[18] Tetrahalides, SiX4, are formed with all of the halogens.[15] Silicon tetrachloride for example readily reacts with water unlike its carbon analogue, carbon tetrachloride.[16] Silicon dihalides are formed by the high temperature reaction of tetrahalides and silicon, with a structure analogous to a carbene they are reactive compounds. [16] Silicon difluoride condenses to form a polymeric compound, (SiF2)n.[16] Silicon dioxide, is a high melting solid with a number of different crystal forms the most familiar of which is the mineral quartz.[15] In quartz each silicon atom is surrounded by four oxygen atoms that bridge to other silicon atoms to form a three dimensional lattice.[15] Silica is soluble in water at high temperatures forming monosilicic acid (Si(OH)4)[16] and this property is used in the manufacture of quartz crystals used in electronics. ,[15]
Under the right conditions monosilicic acid readily polymerises to form more complex silicic acids, ranging from the simplest condensate, disilicic acid (H6Si2O7) to linear, ribbon, layer and lattice structures which form the basis of the many different silicate minerals.[16] Silicates are also important constituents of concretes.[15] With oxides of other elements the high temperature reaction of silicon dioxide can give a wide range of glasses with various properties.[16] Examples include soda lime glass, borosilicate glass and lead crystal glass. Silicon sulfide, SiS2 is a polymeric solid (unlike its carbon analogue the liquid CS2).[15] Silicon forms a nitride, Si3N4 which is a ceramic.[15] Silatranes, a group of tricyclic compounds containing five coordinate silicon may have physiological properties.[19] Many transition metal complexes containing a metal-silicon bond are now known, which include complexes containing, SiHnX3-n ligands, SiX3 ligands, Si(OR)3 ligands.[19] Silicones are large group of polymeric compounds with an (Si-O-Si) backbone an example is the silicone oil, PDMS, polydimethylsiloxane).[15] These polymers can be crosslinked to produce resins and elestomers.[15] Many organosilicon compounds are known which contain a silicon-carbon single bond. Many of these are based on a central tetrahedral silicon atom and some are optically active when central chirality exists. Long chain polymers containing a silicon backbone are known for example polydimethysilylene (SiMe2)n.[20] Polycarbosilane, [(SiMe2)2CH2]n with a backbone containing a repeating -Si-Si-C unit is a precursor in the production of silicon carbide fibres.[20]
Applications
As the second most abundant element in the earth's crust, silicon is vital to the construction industry as a principal constituent of natural stone, glass, concrete and cement. Silicon's greatest impact on the modern world's economy and lifestyle has resulted from silicon wafers used as substrates in the manufacture of discrete electronic devices such as power transistors, and in the development of integrated circuits such as computer chips.
Alloys
The largest application of pure silicon (metallurgical grade silicon), representing about 55% of the world consumption, is in the manufacture of aluminium-silicon alloys to produce cast parts, mainly for the automotive industry. Silicon is an important constituent of electrical steel, modifying its resistivity and ferromagnetic properties. Silicon is added to molten cast iron as ferrosilicon or silicocalcium alloys to improve its performance in casting thin sections, and to prevent the formation of cementite at the surface.
In electronic applications
Pure silicon is used to produce ultra-pure silicon wafers used in the semiconductor industry, in electronics and in photovoltaic applications. Ultra-pure silicon can be doped with other elements to adjust its electrical response by controlling the number and charge (positive or negative) of current carriers. Such control is necessary for transistors, solar cells, integrated circuits, microprocessors, semiconductor detectors and other semiconductor devices which are used in electronics and other high-tech applications. In Photonics, silicon can be used as a continuous wave Raman laser medium to produce coherent light, though it is ineffective as a light source. Hydrogenated amorphous silicon is used in the production of low-cost, large-area electronics in applications such as LCDs, and of large-area, low-cost thin-film solar cells.
Silicones
The second largest application of silicon (about 40% of world consumption) is as a raw material in the production of silicones, compounds containing silicon-oxygen and silicon-carbon bonds that have the capability to act as bonding intermediates between glass and organic compounds, and to form polymers with useful properties such as impermeability to water, flexibility and resistance to chemical attack. Silicones are used in waterproofing treatments, molding compounds and mold-release agents, mechanical seals, high temperature greases and waxes, caulking compounds and even in applications as diverse as breast implants, explosives and pyrotechnics.[21]
- Construction: Silicon dioxide or silica in the form of sand and clay is an important ingredient of concrete and brick and is also used to produce Portland cement.
- Pottery/Enamel is a refractory material used in high-temperature material production and its silicates are used in making enamels and pottery.
- Glass: Silica from sand is a principal component of glass. Glass can be made into a great variety of shapes and with many different physical properties. Silica is used as a base material to make window glass, containers, insulators, and many other useful objects.
- Abrasives: Silicon carbide is one of the most important abrasives.
- Silly Putty was originally made by adding boric acid to silicone oil. Now name-brand Silly Putty also contains significant amounts of elemental silicon. (Silicon binds to the silicone and allows the material to bounce 20% higher.)[citation needed]
See also Category:Silicon compounds
Production
Silicon is commercially prepared by the reaction of high-purity silica with wood, charcoal, and coal, in an electric arc furnace using carbon electrodes. At temperatures over 1,900 °C (3,450 °F), the carbon reduces the silica to silicon according to the chemical equation
- SiO2 + C → Si + CO2.
- SiO2 + 2C → Si + 2CO.
Liquid silicon collects in the bottom of the furnace, and is then drained and cooled. The silicon produced via this process is called metallurgical grade silicon and is at least 98% pure. Using this method, silicon carbide, SiC, can form. However, provided the amount of SiO2 is kept high, silicon carbide may be eliminated, as explained by this equation:
- 2 SiC + SiO2 → 3 Si + 2 CO.
In 2005, metallurgical grade silicon cost about $ 0.77 per pound ($1.70/kg).[22]
It has been reported in recent years that, by molten salt electrolysis, pure silicon can be directly extracted from solid silica and this new electrolysis method, known as the FFC Cambridge Process, has the potential to produce directly the solar grade silicon without any CO2 emission at much lower energy consumption.[23][24][25]
Purification
The use of silicon in semiconductor devices demands a much greater purity than afforded by metallurgical grade silicon. Historically, a number of methods have been used to produce high-purity silicon.
Physical methods
Early silicon purification techniques were based on the fact that if silicon is melted and re-solidified, the last parts of the mass to solidify contain most of the impurities. The earliest method of silicon purification, first described in 1919 and used on a limited basis to make radar components during World War II, involved crushing metallurgical grade silicon and then partially dissolving the silicon powder in an acid. When crushed, the silicon cracked so that the weaker impurity-rich regions were on the outside of the resulting grains of silicon. As a result, the impurity-rich silicon was the first to be dissolved when treated with acid, leaving behind a more pure product.
In zone melting, also called zone refining, the first silicon purification method to be widely used industrially, rods of metallurgical grade silicon are heated to melt at one end. Then, the heater is slowly moved down the length of the rod, keeping a small length of the rod molten as the silicon cools and re-solidifies behind it. Since most impurities tend to remain in the molten region rather than re-solidify, when the process is complete, most of the impurities in the rod will have been moved into the end that was the last to be melted. This end is then cut off and discarded, and the process repeated if a still higher purity is desired.
Chemical methods
Today, silicon is purified by converting it to a silicon compound that can be more easily purified by distillation than in its original state, and then converting that silicon compound back into pure silicon. Trichlorosilane is the silicon compound most commonly used as the intermediate, although silicon tetrachloride and silane are also used. When these gases are blown over silicon at high temperature, they decompose to high-purity silicon.
At one time, DuPont produced ultra-pure silicon by reacting silicon tetrachloride with high-purity zinc vapors at 950 °C, producing silicon according to the chemical equation
- SiCl4 + 2 Zn → Si + 2 ZnCl2.
However, this technique was plagued with practical problems (such as the zinc chloride byproduct solidifying and clogging lines) and was eventually abandoned in favor of the Siemens process.
In the Siemens process, high-purity silicon rods are exposed to trichlorosilane at 1150 °C. The trichlorosilane gas decomposes and deposits additional silicon onto the rods, enlarging them according to chemical reactions like
- 2 HSiCl3 → Si + 2 HCl + SiCl4.
Silicon produced from this and similar processes is called polycrystalline silicon. Polycrystalline silicon typically has impurity levels of less than 10−9.
In 2006 REC announced construction of a plant based on fluidized bed technology using silane.[26]
- 3SiCl4 + Si + 2H2 → 4HSiCl3
- 4HSiCl3 → 3SiCl4 + SiH4
- SiH4 → Si + 2H2
Crystallization
Silicon, like carbon and other group IV elements form face-centered diamond cubic crystal structure. Silicon, in particular, forms a face-centered cubic structure with a lattice spacing of 5.430710 Å (0.5430710 nm).[27]
The majority of silicon crystals grown for device production are produced by the Czochralski process, (CZ-Si) since it is the cheapest method available and it is capable of producing large size crystals. However, silicon single-crystals grown by the Czochralski method contain impurities since the crucible which contains the melt dissolves. For certain electronic devices, particularly those required for high power applications, silicon grown by the Czochralski method is not pure enough. For these applications, float-zone silicon (FZ-Si) can be used instead. It is worth mentioning though, in contrast with CZ-Si method in which the seed is dipped into the silicon melt and the growing crystal is pulled upward, the thin seed crystal in the FZ-Si method sustains the growing crystal as well as the polysilicon rod from the bottom. As a result, it is difficult to grow large size crystals using the float-zone method. Today, all the dislocation-free silicon crystals used in semiconductor industry with diameter 300mm or larger are grown by the Czochralski method with purity level significantly improved.
Different forms of silicon
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Silicon powder -
Granular silicon -
Polycrystal silicon -
Silicon monocrystal -
-
Silicon Ingot
One can notice the color change in silicon nanopowder. This is caused by the quantum effects which occur in particles of nanometric dimensions. See also Potential well, Quantum dot, and Nanoparticle.
In popular culture
Because silicon is an important element in semiconductors and high-tech devices, the high-tech region of Silicon Valley, California is named after this element. Other geographic locations with connections to the industry have since characterized themselves as siliconia as well.
See also
- Black silicon
- Covalent superconductors
- Crystalline silicon
- Electronics
- List of silicon producers
- Printed silicon electronics
- RCA clean
- Silicone
- Wafer (electronics)
References
- ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Silicon". CIAAW. 2009.
- ^ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
- ^ a b c Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.
- ^ "New Type of Zero-Valent Tin Compound". Chemistry Europe. 27 August 2016.
- ^ Ram, R. S.; et al. (1998). "Fourier Transform Emission Spectroscopy of the A2D–X2P Transition of SiH and SiD" (PDF). J. Mol. Spectr. 190 (2): 341–352. doi:10.1006/jmsp.1998.7582. PMID 9668026.
- ^ Eranna, Golla (2014). Crystal Growth and Evaluation of Silicon for VLSI and ULSI. CRC Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4822-3281-3.
- ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
- ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
- ^ a b c d Hopcroft, Matthew A.; Nix, William D.; Kenny, Thomas W. (2010). "What is the Young's Modulus of Silicon?". Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems. 19 (2): 229. doi:10.1109/JMEMS.2009.2039697.
- ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements: XII. Other elements isolated with the aid of potassium and sodium: beryllium, boron, silicon, and aluminum". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (8): 1386–1412. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1386W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1386.
- ^ Voronkov, M. G. (2007). "Silicon era". Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry. 80 (12): 2190. doi:10.1134/S1070427207120397.
- ^ Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
- ^ "The periodic table". webelements.com. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
- ^ "Phosphorus - 32". sciencegateway.org. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Greenwood, N. N. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edition ed.). Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d e f g h Holleman, A. F. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry, 1st Edition. Academic Press. ISBN 0123526515.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ (Multiply Bonded Main Group Metals and Metalloids: Multiple Bonded Main Group Metals and Metalloids, F. G. Stone, Robert West, Academic Press, 1996, ISBN 0120311399)
- ^ A Stable Compound Containing a Silicon-Silicon Triple Bond, Akira Sekiguchi, Rei Kinjo, Masaaki Ichinohe, Science 17 September 2004:Vol. 305. no. 5691, pp. 1755 - 1757 doi:10.1126/science.1102209
- ^ a b Lickiss, Paul D. (1994). Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471936200.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ a b Sakurai, Hideki (1994). Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471936200.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Koch, E.C. "Special Materials in Pyrotechnics: VI. Silicon - An Old Fuel with New Perspectives".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "Silicon" (PDF). usgs.gov. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
- ^ "New silicon production method with no carbon reductant". Referering to Chen, George Zheng (2000). "Direct electrochemical reduction of titanium dioxide to titanium in molten calcium chloride". Nature. 407 (6802): 361–364. doi:10.1038/35030069.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|month=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Xianbo Jin, Pei Gao, Dihua Wang, Xiaohong Hu, George Z. Chen (2004). "Electrochemical Preparation of Silicon and Its Alloys from Solid Oxides in Molten Calcium Chloride". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43: 733–736.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|month=(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Nohira, Toshiyuki (2003). "Pinpoint and bulk electrochemical reduction of insulating silicon dioxide to silicon". Nature Materials. 2: 397–401. doi:10.1038/nmat900.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|month=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "Analyst_silicon_field_trip_March_28,_2007" (PDF). hugin.info. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
- ^ O'Mara, William C. (1990). Handbook of Semiconductor Silicon Technology. William Andrew Inc. p. 349-352. ISBN 0815512376. Retrieved 2008-02-24.
External links
