Tawfiq Canaan

Tawfiq Canaan
Born	(1882-09-24)24 September 1882 Beit Jala
Died	15 January 1964(1964-01-15) (aged 81) Jerusalem
Nationality	Palestinian
Occupation(s)	Physician, Ethnographer, Author
Known for	Pioneer in the field of medicine in Palestine Researcher of Palestinian popular heritage
Parent(s)	Bechara Canaan and Katharina Khairallah

Tawfiq Canaan (Arabic: توفيق كنعان) (24 September 1882 – 15 January 1964) was a physician and pioneer in the field of medicine in Palestine, also well-known for being one of the foremost researchers of Palestinian popular heritage.

A medical officer in the Ottoman army in World War I, and the first President of the Palestine Arab Medical Association established in 1944, Canaan authored more than 37 studies over the course of his medical career on tropical medicine and bacteriology. Contributing to research that led to the finding of a cure for malaria, other topics covered in his medical studies included leprosy, tuberculosis, and health conditions in Palestine.

Canaan's keen interest in Palestinian folklore, popular beliefs, and superstitions led to his collection of over 1,400 amulets, now held by Bir Zeit university in Ramallah. His published analyses of these and other folk traditions brought him recognition as an ethnographer and anthropologist. A member of the Palestine Oriental Society and The American School for Oriental Research, Canaan published a number of books and more than 50 articles in English and German on folklore and superstition that have served as valuable resources to researchers of Palestinian and Middle Eastern heritage ever since.

A Palestinian nationalist and outspoken public figure, Canaan wrote two books on the Palestine problem, reflecting his involvement in confronting British imperialism and Zionism. Arrested by the British authorities in 1939 — his family home and clinic in Jerusalem destroyed during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war — he nevertheless managed to re-establish his life and career. First taking sanctuary in a convent in the Old City for two years, Canaan went on to become the director of the Augusta Victoria Hospital on the Mount of Olives, where he lived with his family through his retirement until his death in 1964.

Early life

Born in Beit Jala, Tawfiq Canaan was the second child of Katharina Khairallah and Bechara Canaan, PhD, the first Arab pastor of the Arab Lutheran Church. He completed his secondary school education at the Schneller School which his father had also attended. In 1899, he went to Beirut to study medicine at the Syrian Protestant College (today the American University of Beirut). Shortly after his arrival, his father died of pneumonia. To lift the financial burden on his family he began giving private lessons and doing other work at the university to supplement his income.

Of his father, Tawfiq Canaan said, "We used to go with my father on short and long trips all over the country in order to get acquainted with the country and the people. This continuous contact with the people nurtured in all of us, and particularly in me, love for the country and the people. This feeling of belonging and unshaken loyalty remained with me till this day." Writing in the Jerusalem Quarterly, Khaled Nashef has ventured that Canaan's interest and knowledge of nature in Palestine, later reflected in writings such as "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928), may have been related to these trips.

Medical career

The Old City of Jerusalem in the 1900s

Graduating with honors from the school of medicine, Canaan delivered the valedictory speech for his class on 28 June 1905. Entitled "Modern Treatment," it touched on the medical uses of serums, animal organs, and X-rays and was published in Al-Muqtataf, likely constituting his first published piece. Canaan began his medical career immediately upon graduation as an assistant to Dr. Grussendorf, the Director of the German Hospital in Jerusalem. When Grussendorf travelled to Germany in 1906, Canaan co-administered the hospital with Dr. Adolf Einszler. The German-Jewish Hospital (Shaare Zedek) also sought out his services as a manager at this time.

In 1911, Canaan published his first medical article as a practicing doctor on "Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis in Jerusalem," based on studies he conducted with Dr. Wallach, director of the Shaare Zedek hospital. Between 1912 and 1914, he was travelling back and forth between Palestine and Germany to specialize in tropical medicine and microbiology studies with professors Mühlens, Ruge, Huntemüler, and Hans Much. Much was the head of a mission to Palestine studying tuberculosis which published a report in 1913 to which Canaan contributed three research papers.

Canaan married Margot Eilender, the daughter of a German importer, in January 1912, and the following year they moved into the family home which they built in the al-Musrarah district of Jerusalem. Three of their four children (Theo, Nada, and Leila) were born in that house. Canaan opened a clinic there, which was the only Arab clinic operating in Jerusalem at the time. In 1913, Canaan was appointed director of the Malaria Branch of the International Health Bureau, a world center for medical research and microscopic examination founded by The German Society for Fighting Malaria, The Jewish Health Bureau, and The Jewish Physicians and Scientists for Improving Health in Palestine.

In August 1914, after a four-month stay in Germany, Canaan returned to work in the German Hospital with Grussendorf. As a citizen of the Ottoman Empire, which administered Palestine at the time, Canaan was drafted as an officer into the Ottoman army upon the outbreak of World War I that October. First assigned as a physician to a contingent in Nazareth, he was transferred that same year to 'Awja al-Hafeer. While there, the German chief physician appointed him Head of the Laboratories on the Sinai Front, a position which afforded him the ability to travel between Bir as-Saba, Beit Hanoun, Gaza, and Shaykh Nouran, as well as Damascus, Amman, and Aleppo. During this period, Canaan collected more than two hundred amulets to add to a collection he had begun in the early twentieth century.

After the war ended in 1919, Canaan was appointed Director of The Leprosy Hospital (Asylum of the Lepers) in Talbiyyah—the only leprosy hospital in Syria, Palestine, and the Transjordan. Leprosy was considered an incurable disease at the time. Research progress in the field of bacteriology and microscopic examination, to which Canaan contributed, resulted in the discovery of a cure using chaulmoogra oil.

In 1923, the German Hospital reopened and Canaan was placed in charge of the Internal Medicine Division. He held this position until 1940 when the German Hospital could no longer continue smooth operations, as, by 1939, most German citizens had either left Palestine or been arrested by the British Mandatory authorities.

Canaan treated people from all social classes and segments of Palestinian and Arab society over the course of his medical career. He was one of a number of physicians from Jerusalem to examine Sherif Hussein of Mecca in Amman before his death in 1931, and removed a bullet from the thigh of Abu Jildah, a notorious Palestinian rebel, in 1936. Well-regarded within the medical community, an entry on Canaan is included in the book Famous Doctors in Tropical Medicine (1932) by Dr. G. Olpp, director of the tropical medicine center in Tübingen.

Research and writings on Palestine

Beginnings

In 1911, the geographical journal Globus published a German translation of a lecture Canaan first delivered on 22 May 1909 in Arabic on "Agriculture in Palestine"; a work which remains a useful basic reference for information on the development of agriculture in Palestine at the time. In this first article outside the realm of medicine, Canaan revealed himself as a well-versed researcher in the field of "Oriental Studies", quoting Schumacher, Bauer, Guthe, and Burckhardt, alongside classical sources, like Strabo and Josephus, and Arab sources like Mujir ad-Din. Canaan's focus on Palestinian peasantry is first apparent here.

Influenced by the Old Testament studies produced by Gustaf Dalman, Albrecht Alt, and Martin Noth, who along with Hans Wilhelm Hertzberg, were all acquaintances of his, Canaan used the Bible and particularly the Old Testament, as a basic source to compare past and present agricultural practices. Canaan and Dalman, who headed The Evangelical German Institute beginning in 1903, apparently shared the idea that it is not possible to understand the Old Testament without studying Palestinian folklore.

The Journal of the German Palestine Society (German: Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästinavereins) published Canaan's first work in the field of Palestinian folklore, "The Calendar of Palestinian Peasants," in 1913. In the article, Canaan focused on the agricultural practices of Palestinian fellaheen. He found that people in southern Palestine divided the year into seven periods of 50 days, a type of pentecontad calendar, which was later identified to have origins in 3rd millennium BCE Western Mesopotamia, possibly among the Amorites. A year later, Canaan published his first book, entitled Superstition and Popular Medicine.

'Nativist' ethnography

According to Salim Tamari, director of the Institute of Jerusalem Studies, Canaan was the most prominent of a school of 'nativist' ethnographers who published their works in The Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (1920-1948). This group was driven by the concern that the "native culture of Palestine", and in particular peasant society, was being undermined by the forces of modernity. Tamari writes that,

"Implicit in their scholarship (and made explicit by Canaan himself) was another theme, namely that the peasants of Palestine represent – through their folk norms…the living heritage of all the accumulated ancient cultures that had appeared in Palestine (principally the Canaanite, Philistine, Hebraic, Nabatean, Syrio-Aramaic and Arab)."

A member of the Palestine Oriental Society, (est. in 1920 by Albert Tobias Clay), Canaan was also a member of The American School for Oriental Research (est. 1900), the Jerusalem branch of which was headed from 1920 to 1929 by the American archaeologist William Foxwell Albright. In the articles he published for the Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society—examples of which include "Haunted Springs and Water Demons in Palestine" (1920-1921), "Tasit ar-Radjfeh" ("Fear Cup"; 1923), and "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928)—Canaan exhibited his deep interest in superstition.

The cover of Haunted Springs and Water Demons in Palestine, published in 1922.

Tamari notes that unlike the Canaanite revivalist writings produced by Palestinian writers after 1948, which were in many ways a response to Zionist narratives tracing Jewish connections back to the time of the Israelites (See Canaanite movement), "Canaan and his group, by contrast, were not Canaanites. They contested Zionist claims to biblical patrimonies by stressing present day continuities between the biblical heritage (and occasionally prebiblical roots) and Palestinian popular beliefs and practices."

According to Meron Benvenisti, Canaan's "most outstanding contribution to the ethnography of Arab Palestine and to the annals of his country" was Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine (1927). In the introduction to this work, Canaan writes of how "The primitive features of Palestine are disappearing so quickly that before long most of them will be forgotten…", a change he attributed to Western influence and the European educational models being introduced locally. The study objective was to compare the "simple, crude, but uncontaminated Palestinian atmosphere," with the customs and practices of earlier times.

In "Belief in Demons in the Holy Land" (1929, original in German), Canaan gathers together every reference to demons in Palestinian popular belief, detailing their names and classes, food, dress, appearance, and dwellings, such as, for example, the carob tree. Canaan posited that village sanctuaries and rituals to confer protection and blessings were an indication of how supernatural forces are everywhere found, affecting people's lives and bringing good or bad luck and even diseases. The names of some diseases in Arabic reference the names of long-forgotten demons, such as al-khanuq (diphteria), ar-rih al-asfar (cholera or yellow fever), and at-ta'un (plague). Canaan's perception of the origin of demons was in line with the traditional view that they were once deities within the polytheistic system, or what Canaan refers to as the "primitive religions." With the advent of monotheism, the status of these gods diminished, subsisting nevertheless in the communal unconscious as demons.

In 1929, during a trip to Petra, Canaan discovered at its northern boundary a Kebaran shelter which he named Wadi Madamagh. Canaan counted among his acquaintances a number of specialists in the field of Palestinian archaeology, including William Foxwell Albright, Nelson Glueck, and Kathleen Kenyon.

Collection of Palestinian amulets

Gathered by Canaan beginning in the early 20th century through until 1947, this collection was donated to Birzeit University by his family. Comprising more than 1,400 amulets and other objects related to popular medicine and folk practices, Canaan collected some of these objects from his patients who came from various Palestinian cities and villages, and other Arab countries including Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Yemen. He also purchased amulets from antiquity dealers, including Ohan, a well-known Armenian who had a shop in ad-Dabbaghah Quarter in Jerusalem until 1948. Sheikhs, fortunetellers, and Sufis who prepared his amulets could be counted among Canaan's many acquaintances, including Ibrahim Hassan al-Ansari (Ad-Danaf), a custodian of the Haram al-Sharif (Temple Mount), Sheikh 'Atif ad-Disy, a Qadiriyyah follower, and Sheikh Mahmoud al-'Askari al-Falakki from al-Dhahiriyyah, a famous fortuneteller in Jerusalem.

Canaan believed there was a close relationship between popular beliefs and superstitions marshalled to cure diseases and scientific medicine. His analysis of the talismans was facilitated by the interviews he conducted with individuals who wore them, though he also drew upon specialized sources and references on sorcery and witchcraft. He deciphered some of the symbols and wrote about the meanings of the shapes, writings, letters and numbers used, publishing one such article on the subject in a journal produced by Antiquities Museum of the American University in Beirut in 1937.

Drawing upon his medical background, Canaan classifies amulets under the subheadings of etiology, diagnosis, prognosis, prophylaxis, and treatment which constitute chapters in his book Superstition and Popular Medicine (1914). Evil spirits, such as the Qarinah, "Mother of Boys," and the evil eye are discussed in the chapter on etiology. In the chapter on prophylaxis, he covers charms, amulets, and beads, such as the blue bead, eyes, and alum. The uses of the branch of the mes-tree (celtis australis) that grows within the Haram al-Sharif compound in Jerusalem are also described in detail. Placed in a necklace or on the head, the branch is said to have a special effect if harvested on Laylat al-Qadr (27 Ramadan), which in Islamic belief is the night the Quran was revealed. In the chapter on treatment, where there is a comprehensive listing of all kinds of amulets and talismans, such as "the soul's bead," "the cat's eye," "the milk's bead" (to encourage the production of breastmilk), he also discusses jewelry and the special uses of animal parts, such as al-hitit-horn which he identifies as useful treatment for poisoning.

Canaan's collection is composed of:

• Amulets (Arabic: hujub) or talismans written on paper and placed in triangular cloth, leather wraps, cylinders or silver cases.
• Jewelry, including necklaces, bracelets, rings and semiprecious stones. These items are still worn today although their status as amulets has since waned.
• Glass beads and stones of all types and colors used for healing and repelling the evil eye. Hebron glass beads in the shape of eyes of various sizes were given names including rooster eye, baby camel eye and camel eye.
• Paper amulets that include talismans, supplications and prayers, which were hung in homes for protection.
• Pilgrims' certificates bearing religious symbols of the three Semitic religions, in stamp or written form which were given to pilgrims who visited holy sites in Jerusalem and Hebron.
• Silver votive offerings, most of which are from Aleppo, Syria, and shaped in the form of the human body or its parts. These were hung in churches and on religious icons to heal illnesses and protect the health of children.
• Organic materials like animal bones and tortoise shells, sometimes inscribed with talismanic writings and used primarily for treating epilepsy.
• Vessels such as "fear cups" inscribed with Quranic verses and supplications. Water was placed in the cup and left under the light of the moon and stars for several nights before being given to an afflicted person to drink.
• Ceramic dishes inscribed with talismans for curing diseases and facilitating childbirth.

The collection continues to provide valuable information on folk medicine and the manifestations of magic in the popular beliefs and practices of Palestinian and neighboring Arab societies – practices that exist to this day.

Nationalist writings

Canaan's political positions and his strong sense of nationalism find clear expression in two of his published works: The Palestine Arab Cause (1936) and Conflict in the Land of Peace (1936). Published in English, Arabic, and French, The Palestine Arab Cause was a 48-page booklet that "resembled a political pamphlet directed at British public opinion." First published as a series of articles in the local and foreign press after the outbreak of the 1936 revolt, the writings were considered by the Mandatory authorities to be subversive. Canaan described British policy as "a destructive campaign against the Arabs with the ultimate aim of exterminating them from their country." He also questioned the nationality laws enacted by the Mandatory authorities which prevented Palestinian immigrants in the Americas, who had been citizens of the Ottoman Empire, from obtaining Palestinian citizenship in Mandate Palestine.

Conflict in the Land of Peace probes the Palestine problem in greater detail, while also containing responses to an anonymously authored pamphlet that was released after the publication of The Palestine Arab Cause that outlined the benefits that Jewish immigration brought to Palestine, such as improvements in agriculture and in the health conditions of the peasantry. Canaan responded to, and deconstructed, the alleged benefits. For example, in addressing the draining of some swamps and streams by Jewish settlers, he concedes that this did contribute to controlling the malaria epidemic in Palestine, but points out that these lands, purchased at a very low prices, were transformed into agricultural land via Arab labour for the sole benefit of the Jewish owners. Recalling that tens of the Egyptian labourers employed to dig the drainage channels died in the process, Canaan writes: "Baron De Rothschild supplied the money and the Egyptians gave their lives." Drawing attention to what the anonymous pamphleteer did not, Canaan further notes that the draining of swamps was carried out in tens of sites throughout Palestine by Palestinians and Arabs under the supervision of the Department of Health with Arab financial support and volunteer labour.

Canaan was also a co-signatory to a document sent to the Higher Arab Committee on 6 August 1936 and there is reason to believe that Canaan strongly supported providing the Arab rebels with arms. From 1936 onward, Canaan "clearly expressed his rejection of British and Zionist policies, in particular the policy of open-door Jewish immigration to Palestine."

Events in Palestine and the impact on his life

Imprisonment of Canaan, his wife, and his sister

On 3 September 1939, the day that Britain and France declared war on Germany, Canaan was arrested by the British Mandate authorities. After two court appearances, he was released, but was imprisoned for nine weeks in Acre at the behest of the Criminal Investigation Department. His wife was also arrested because she was German, and his sister Badra was arrested on the accusation that she was "inciting Arab women against Britain." Both were imprisoned with Jewish criminal prisoners at a women's facility in Bethlehem; his wife for nine months, and his sister for four years. They were then sent to Wilhelma, a former German colony that had been transformed into a detention camp for German Palestinians.

Canaan's wife and sister were among those who founded the Arab Women's Committee in Jerusalem in 1934. A charitable society at the outset, it soon took on a political orientation, and by May 1936, the Committee was calling for civil disobedience and the continuation of the general strike that kicked off the 1936 revolt. Canaan's sister Badra also participated as assistant secretary in the Palestinian delegation to The Eastern Women's Conference that was held in support of Palestine in Cairo in October 1938.

Founding of the Arab Medical Society of Palestine

Established on 4 August 1944 by way of a decision adopted at the Arab Medical Conference in Haifa in 1934, the Arab Medical Society of Palestine was an umbrella group for medical associations in various cities. Canaan was the first president of the Society which produced the first issue of its journal al-Majallah at-Tibbiyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Filastiniyyah ("The Palestinian Arab Medical Journal") in Arabic and English in December 1945. Canaan was also a member of the journal's editorial board, with Mahmoud ad-Dajani as editor-in-chief. The Society organized its first medical conference in Palestine in July 1945. Among the invitees was Howard Walter Florey, the Nobel laureate in Physiology and Medicine for isolating and purifying penicillin for general medical use.

When the political and security situation in Palestine deteriorated, the Society trained and organized relief units and centers to provide medical aid to the Palestinian and Arab fighters. It also contacted and coordinated with the Red Cross to protect hospitals and the other humanitarian institutions. The Society also put out an appeal to medical associations and Red Crescent and Red Cross organizations in a number of Arab capitals, some of which responded by sending limited medical aid.

Canaan was also a founding member of the Higher Arab Relief Committee, established on 24 January 1948, to receive aid coming to the country and supervise its distribution.

1948 war

See also: 1948 Arab-Israeli war

Bombs and mortar shells hit some Arab houses in al-Musrarah quarter of Jerusalem where the Canaan family home was located, on 22 February 1948. Shortly thereafter, the Canaan's children were moved out of the house to a safer location, but Tawfiq, Margot, Badra, and Nora (his sister-in-law) remained there. Canaan deposited his collection of amulets and 250 icons with an international organization in the western part of Jerusalem early that year for safekeeping. After the house sustained a direct hit on 9 May 1948, Canaan and those who remained went to the Old City where they had arranged to stay at a convent. The Greek Orthodox Patriarch gave the family a room where they lived for two and a half years. Canaan's daughter Leila Mantoura wrote of this time:

"Mother and father would go daily to the top of the Wall of Jerusalem to look at their home. They witnessed it being ransacked, together with the wonderful priceless library and manuscripts, which mother guarded jealously and with great pride. They saw mother's Biedermeyer furniture being loaded into trucks and then their home being set on fire."

Canaan's family home, library, and three manuscripts ready for publication were destroyed in the process.

Continuing his work as physician, Canaan treated patients out of his new temporary home. He also continued in his capacity as head of the Arab Medical Society of Palestine and in his duties to his country.

After difficult negotiations with the Mandate Government, the Arab Medical Society of Palestine succeeded in taking over operations at the Central Hospital and the Hospice Hospital in Jerusalem, the Infectious Diseases Hospital near Beit Safafa, and the Mental Hospital in Bethlehem. The Central Hospital and its facilities in the Russian Compound (al-Mascobiyyah), together with the Austrian Hospice Hospital, were officially under the Society's administration by May 1948, and both facilities received the wounded and the sick during the 1948 Palestine war. A large Red Cross flag flew over the Central Hospital which was run by one of Canaan's colleagues. Jewish militias nevertheless shelled the hospital, destroying a large section. After the surrounding houses and a part of the hospital were occupied by Jewish militants, who continually shelled the remainder of the medical facility preventing patient access, the Society was finally forced to evacuate in October 1948.

Canaan personally managed the Austrian Hospice which was transformed into a hospital in early 1948 with the agreement of the Mandatory authorities. He and the hospital staff were able to keep it running during the battle for Jerusalem until they too were forced to evacuate due to the continuous shelling.

Post-1948

After the war ended, and with the influx of refugees in Jerusalem, the Lutheran World Federation (LWF) appointed Canaan as manager of medical operations. He helped establish clinics at the Saint John Hospice in the Old City, and in 'Aizariyyeh, Hebron, Beit Jala, and Taybeh (near Ramallah). He also regularly visited mobile clinics established by the LWF in rural areas.

In 1950, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and the LWF jointly reestablished the Augusta Victoria Hospital in the same building it had occupied prior to the war on the Mount of Olives (Jabal al-Tur). Canaan was appointed its first medical director and held the position for five years.

After his son Theo died in 1954 while renovating an archaeological monument in Jerash, Canaan and his wife were bereft. When he retired at the age of seventy-five, he was offered a house on the grounds of the Augusta Victoria Hospital where he lived with his family, and he continued to write until his death on 15 January 1964. His last article, "Crime in the Traditions and Customs of the Arabs in Jordan," was published in German in Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästinavereins that same year. Canaan was buried in the Evangelical Lutheran Cemetery in Bethlehem, near Beit Jala, his childhood home.

Published works (partial list)

Folklore and ethnography

• "Agriculture in Palestine" (1909). In Globus, a translation from Arabic into German of a lecture he delivered on 22 May 1909.
• "Demons as an Aetiological Factor in Popular Medicine" (1912). In Al-Kulliyeh (Beirut), a translation from German into English of part of his book Superstition and Popular Medicine (1914).
• "The Calendar of Palestinian Peasants" (1913). In Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästinavereins (Journal of the German Palestine Society).
• Superstition and Popular Medicine (1914).
• "Haunted Springs and Water Demons in Palestine" (1920-1921).
• "Tasit ar-Radjfeh" ("Fear Cup"; 1923).
• Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine (1927). Jerusalem: The Syrian Orphanage Press.
• "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928).
• "Belief in Demons in the Holy Land" (1929, in German).
• "Studies in the Topography and Folklore of Petra" (1929).
• "Light and Darkness in Palestine Folklore" (1931). In Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (JPOS).
• "Unwritten Laws Affecting the Arab Women of Palestine" (1931). In Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (JPOS).
• The Palestine Arab House: Its Architecture and Folklore (1933). The Syrian Orphanage Press, Jerusalem.
• "Arabic Magic Bowls" (1936). In Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society.
• "Review of Dalman's Arbeit und Sitte in Palastina" (1934). In Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (JPOS).
• "Review of Granquist's Marriage Conditions in a Palestinian Village" (1933 and 1937). In Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (JPOS).
• "The Decipherment of Arabic Talismans" (1938). Beirut.
• "Superstition and Folklore about Bread" (1962).
• "The 'Azazime Bedouin and Their Region". Translated from the original German by William Templer. In Arab World Geographer (1999).

Politics

• The Palestine Arab Cause (1936). A 48-page booklet originally written in English.
• Conflict in the Land of Peace (1936). Published in English, Arabic, and French.

Medical

• "Modern Treatment" (1905). In Al-Muqtataf (Beirut).
• "Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis in Jerusalem" (1911). In Al-Kulliyeh (Beirut).
• "Beobachtungen bei einer Denguefieberepidemie in Jerusalem" ("Observations on an epidemic of dengue fever in Jerusalem") (1912). In Archiv fur Schiffund Tropenhygiene. 17: 20-25.
• "Die Jerichobeule" (1916). In Archiv fur Schiffund Tropenhygiene. 20, 109-119.
• "The Oriental Boil: An Epidemiological Study in Palestine" (1929). Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 23, 89-94.
• "Zur Epidemiologie der Orient in Palastina" (1930). Dermatologische Wochenschrift. 29(91), 1779-1181.
• "Kalazar in Palestine" (1937). Festschrift Bernhardt Nocht. 80: 67-71.
• "Topographical studies in leishmaniasis in Palestine" (1945). Journal of the Palestinian Arab Medical Association. 1, 4–12.
• "Intestinal parasites in Palestine" (?) J. Med. Liban. 4(3): 163-9.

Awards

• The Order of the Red Crescent in World War I.
• The Iron Cross in World War I.
• The Holy Sepulchre Cross with a red ribbon, awarded by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch in 1951.
• The Federal Merit Cross from the Federal Republic of Germany in 1951.

See also

• Saint George Interfaith shrine

Bibliography

• Aall-Zyukov; Bureau of Animal Industry, Zoological Division; Agricultural Research Service, Animal Disease and Parasite Research Division (1932), Charles Wardell Stiles (ed.), "intestinal+parasites+in+palestine" Index-catalogue of medical and veterinary zoology, U.S. Government Printing Office
• Benvenisti, Meron (2000), Sacred Landscape: The Buried History of the Holy Land since 1948, University of California Press, ISBN 0520211545
• Bernstein, Deborah S. (2000), Constructing Boundaries: Jewish and Arab Workers in Mandatory Palestine, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791445399
• El-Eini, Roza (2006), Mandated Landscape: British Imperial Rule in Palestine (1929 - 1948), Routledge, ISBN 0714654264
• Hygienische Rundschau (v. 27 ed.), University of Michigan, 1917
• Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. Yellow Fever Bureau (1912), Bulletin (v. 2 ed.), University Press
• Patai, Raphael (1957), Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria: an annotated bibliography, HRAF Press
• Tamari, Salim (2008), "Lepers, Lunatics and Saints: The Nativist Ethnography of Tawfiq Canaan and his Jerusalem Circle", Mountain Against the Sea (Illustrated ed.), University of California Press, ISBN 0520251296, 9780520251298 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Taylor, Jane (2001), Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans, I.B.Tauris, ISBN 1860645089
• Taylor, Joan E. (2003), Jewish Women Philosophers of First Century Alexandria, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0199259615

External links

• The Tawfiq Canaan Collection of Palestinian Amulets - A virtual gallery