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===Origin and initiation===
===Origin and initiation===
[[File:Magnificent CME Erupts on the Sun - August 31.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Solar prominence|filament]] in the midst of eruption resulting in a CME]]
[[File:Magnificent CME Erupts on the Sun - August 31.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Solar prominence|filament]] in the midst of eruption resulting in a CME]]
The exact cause of CMEs is not currently known; however, it is generally thought that CMEs are caused by the destabilization of large-scale magnetic structures in the corona and the resulting reconfiguration of the coronal magnetic field.<ref name=vial15 />
The exact cause of CMEs is not currently known; however, it is generally thought that CMEs are caused by the destabilization of large-scale magnetic structures in the corona and the resulting reconfiguration of the coronal magnetic field.<ref name="vial15" />


The phenomenon of [[magnetic reconnection]] is closely associated with many models of both CMEs and [[solar flares]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-11/aps-sut110310.php |title=Scientists unlock the secrets of exploding plasma clouds on the sun |website=Eurekalert.org |publisher=American Physical Society |date=8 November 2010 |access-date=7 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast27mar_1/ |title=Cannibal Coronal Mass Ejections |publisher=NASA |series=Science News |editor-first=Tony |editor-last=Phillips |date=1 March 2001 |access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref> In magnetized [[Plasma (physics)|plasmas]], magnetic reconnection is the sudden rearrangement of magnetic field lines when two oppositely directed magnetic fields are brought together. Reconnection releases [[magnetic energy]] stored in the original stressed magnetic fields. These magnetic field lines can become twisted in a helical structure, with a right-hand twist or a left-hand twist. As the Sun's magnetic field lines become more and more twisted, CMEs appear to be a release of the magnetic energy being built up, as evidenced by the helical structure of CMEs. Otherwise the twists would renew themselves continuously each solar cycle and eventually rip the Sun apart.<ref name="Green2014">{{cite book |title=15 Million Degrees |publisher=Viking |first=Lucie |last=Green |page=212 |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-670-92218-5}}</ref>
The phenomenon of [[magnetic reconnection]] is closely associated with many models of both CMEs and [[solar flares]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-11/aps-sut110310.php |title=Scientists unlock the secrets of exploding plasma clouds on the sun |website=Eurekalert.org |publisher=American Physical Society |date=8 November 2010 |access-date=7 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast27mar_1/ |title=Cannibal Coronal Mass Ejections |publisher=NASA |series=Science News |editor-first=Tony |editor-last=Phillips |date=1 March 2001 |access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref> In magnetized [[Plasma (physics)|plasmas]], magnetic reconnection is the sudden rearrangement of magnetic field lines when two oppositely directed magnetic fields are brought together. Reconnection releases [[magnetic energy]] stored in the original stressed magnetic fields. These magnetic field lines can become twisted in a helical structure, with a right-hand twist or a left-hand twist. As the Sun's magnetic field lines become more and more twisted, CMEs appear to be a release of the magnetic energy being built up, as evidenced by the helical structure of CMEs. Otherwise the twists would renew themselves continuously each solar cycle and eventually rip the Sun apart.<ref name="Green2014">{{cite book |title=15 Million Degrees |publisher=Viking |first=Lucie |last=Green |page=212 |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-670-92218-5}}</ref>
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====Eruptive prominences====
====Eruptive prominences====
{{See also|Solar prominence#Eruption}}
{{See also|Solar prominence#Eruption}}
Eruptive prominences are associated with at least 70% of all CMEs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gopalswamy |first1=N. |last2=Shimojo |first2=M. |last3=Lu |first3=W. |last4=Yashiro |first4=S. |last5=Shibasaki |first5=K. |last6=Howard |first6=R. A. |title=Prominence Eruptions and Coronal Mass Ejection: A Statistical Study Using Microwave Observations |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=20 March 2003 |volume=586 |issue=1 |pages=562–578 |doi=10.1086/367614|bibcode=2003ApJ...586..562G |s2cid=119654267 }}</ref> Prominences are often embedded within the bases of flux ropes making up CMEs. The eruptive prominence corresponds with the bright core seen in white-light coronagraphs.<ref name=vial15>{{cite book |last1=Vial |first1=Jean-Claude |last2=Engvold |first2=Oddbjørn |title=Solar Prominences |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-10415-7}}</ref>
Eruptive prominences are associated with at least 70% of all CMEs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gopalswamy |first1=N. |last2=Shimojo |first2=M. |last3=Lu |first3=W. |last4=Yashiro |first4=S. |last5=Shibasaki |first5=K. |last6=Howard |first6=R. A. |title=Prominence Eruptions and Coronal Mass Ejection: A Statistical Study Using Microwave Observations |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=20 March 2003 |volume=586 |issue=1 |pages=562–578 |doi=10.1086/367614|bibcode=2003ApJ...586..562G |s2cid=119654267 }}</ref> Prominences are often embedded within the bases of flux ropes making up CMEs. The eruptive prominence corresponds with the bright core seen in white-light coronagraphs.<ref name="vial15">{{cite book |editor1-last=Vial |editor1-first=Jean-Claude |editor2-last=Engvold |editor2-first=Oddbjørn |title=Solar Prominences |date=2015 |isbn=978-3-319-10416-4 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-10416-4}}</ref>


====Solar cycle====
====Solar cycle====
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[[File:Solar Storm on August 1, 2010.OGG|thumb|A video of a series of filament and prominence eruptions during [[solar cycle 24]]]]
[[File:Solar Storm on August 1, 2010.OGG|thumb|A video of a series of filament and prominence eruptions during [[solar cycle 24]]]]


The shock wave located at the leading edge of some CMEs can produce [[Solar radio emission#Solar radio bursts|Type II radio burst]]s when the shock wave accelerates electrons. Some Type IV radio bursts are also associated with CMEs and have been observed to follow Type II bursts.<ref name=vial15 />
The shock wave located at the leading edge of some CMEs can produce [[Solar radio emission#Solar radio bursts|Type II radio burst]]s when the shock wave accelerates electrons. Some Type IV radio bursts are also associated with CMEs and have been observed to follow Type II bursts.<ref name="vial15" />


=====Coronal dimming=====
=====Coronal dimming=====
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====Interplanetary space====
====Interplanetary space====
CMEs can typically be observed in white-light [[coronagraph]]s via [[Thomson scattering]] of sunlight off of free electrons within the CME plasma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Howard |first1=T. A. |last2=DeForest |first2=C. E. |title=The Thomson Surface. I. Reality and Myth |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=20 June 2012 |volume=752 |issue=2 |page=130 |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/752/2/130 |bibcode=2012ApJ...752..130H |s2cid=122654351 |url=https://www.boulder.swri.edu/~deforest/ewExternalFiles/The%20Astrophysical%20Journal%202012%20Howard.pdf |access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref> A typical CME may have any or all of three distinctive features: a dense core, a surrounding cavity of low electron density, and a bright leading edge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gopalswamy |first1=N. |title=Coronal mass ejections: Initiation and detection |journal=Advances in Space Research |date=January 2003 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=869–881 |doi=10.1016/S0273-1177(02)00888-8 |bibcode=2003AdSpR..31..869G |url=https://cdaw.gsfc.nasa.gov/publications/gopal/gopal2003AdvSpRes31_869.pdf |access-date=27 August 2021}}</ref> The dense core is usually interpreted as a prominence embedded in the CME (see {{slink||Eruptive prominences}}) with the leading edge as an area of compressed plasma ahead of the CME flux rope. However, some CMEs exhibit more complex geometry.<ref name=vial15 />
CMEs can typically be observed in white-light [[coronagraph]]s via [[Thomson scattering]] of sunlight off of free electrons within the CME plasma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Howard |first1=T. A. |last2=DeForest |first2=C. E. |title=The Thomson Surface. I. Reality and Myth |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=20 June 2012 |volume=752 |issue=2 |page=130 |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/752/2/130 |bibcode=2012ApJ...752..130H |s2cid=122654351 |url=https://www.boulder.swri.edu/~deforest/ewExternalFiles/The%20Astrophysical%20Journal%202012%20Howard.pdf |access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref> A typical CME may have any or all of three distinctive features: a dense core, a surrounding cavity of low electron density, and a bright leading edge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gopalswamy |first1=N. |title=Coronal mass ejections: Initiation and detection |journal=Advances in Space Research |date=January 2003 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=869–881 |doi=10.1016/S0273-1177(02)00888-8 |bibcode=2003AdSpR..31..869G |url=https://cdaw.gsfc.nasa.gov/publications/gopal/gopal2003AdvSpRes31_869.pdf |access-date=27 August 2021}}</ref> The dense core is usually interpreted as a prominence embedded in the CME (see {{slink||Eruptive prominences}}) with the leading edge as an area of compressed plasma ahead of the CME flux rope. However, some CMEs exhibit more complex geometry.<ref name="vial15" />


[[File:Dynamic Earth-A New Beginning.webm|thumb|Follow a CME as it passes Venus then Earth, and explore how the Sun drives Earth's winds and oceans]]
[[File:Dynamic Earth-A New Beginning.webm|thumb|Follow a CME as it passes Venus then Earth, and explore how the Sun drives Earth's winds and oceans]]

Revision as of 03:28, 8 April 2023

File:Large coronal mass ejection on 2000-02-27 from SOHO LASCO C3 coronagraph.jpg
Coronal mass ejections are usually visible in white-light coronagraphs. Here, the white circle represents the size of the Sun.
The above file's purpose is being discussed and/or is being considered for deletion. See files for discussion to help reach a consensus on what to do.
Part of a series of articles about
Heliophysics
Heliospheric current sheet
Heliospheric current sheet
Fundamentals
Interplanetary medium
Magnetospherics
Solar phenomena

A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a significant ejection of magnetic field and accompanying plasma mass from the Sun's corona into the heliosphere. CMEs are often associated with solar flares and other forms of solar activity, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established.[1][2][3]

If a CME enters interplanetary space, it is referred to as an interplanetary coronal mass ejection (ICME). ICMEs are capable of reaching and colliding with Earth's magnetosphere, where they can cause geomagnetic storms, aurorae, and in rare cases damage to electrical power grids. The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, was the solar storm of 1859. Also known as the Carrington Event, it disabled parts of the at the time newly created United States telegraph network, starting fires and shocking some telegraph operators.[4]

Near solar maxima, the Sun produces about three CMEs every day, whereas near solar minima, there is about one CME every five days.[5]

Physical description

CMEs release large quantities of matter and magnetic flux from the Sun's atmosphere into the solar wind and interplanetary space. The ejected matter is a plasma consisting primarily of electrons and protons embedded within the ejected magnetic field. This magnetic field is commonly in the form of a flux rope, a helical magnetic field with changing pitch angles.

The average mass ejected is 1.6×1012 kg (3.5×1012 lb). However, the estimated mass values for CMEs are only lower limits, because coronagraph measurements provide only two-dimensional data.

Origin and initiation

A filament in the midst of eruption resulting in a CME

The exact cause of CMEs is not currently known; however, it is generally thought that CMEs are caused by the destabilization of large-scale magnetic structures in the corona and the resulting reconfiguration of the coronal magnetic field.[6]

The phenomenon of magnetic reconnection is closely associated with many models of both CMEs and solar flares.[7][8] In magnetized plasmas, magnetic reconnection is the sudden rearrangement of magnetic field lines when two oppositely directed magnetic fields are brought together. Reconnection releases magnetic energy stored in the original stressed magnetic fields. These magnetic field lines can become twisted in a helical structure, with a right-hand twist or a left-hand twist. As the Sun's magnetic field lines become more and more twisted, CMEs appear to be a release of the magnetic energy being built up, as evidenced by the helical structure of CMEs. Otherwise the twists would renew themselves continuously each solar cycle and eventually rip the Sun apart.[9]

Video of a solar filament being launched

On the Sun, magnetic reconnection may happen on solar arcades—a series of closely occurring loops of magnetic lines of force. These lines of force quickly reconnect into a low arcade of loops, leaving a helix of magnetic field unconnected to the rest of the arcade. The sudden release of energy during this process causes the solar flare and ejects the CME. The helical magnetic field and the material that it contains may violently expand outwards forming a CME.[10] This also explains why CMEs and solar flares typically erupt from what are known as the active regions on the Sun where magnetic fields are much stronger on average.[citation needed]

Most weak flares do not have associated CMEs; most powerful ones do. Some CMEs occur without any flare-like manifestation, but these are often weaker and slower.[11] It is now thought that CMEs and associated flares are caused by a common event (the CME peak acceleration and the flare impulsive phase generally coincide). In general, all of these events (including the CME) are thought to be the result of a large-scale restructuring of the magnetic field; the presence or absence of a CME during one of these restructures would reflect the coronal environment of the process (i.e., can the eruption be confined by overlying magnetic structure, or will it simply break through and enter the solar wind).

Eruptive prominences

See also: Solar prominence § Eruption

Eruptive prominences are associated with at least 70% of all CMEs.[12] Prominences are often embedded within the bases of flux ropes making up CMEs. The eruptive prominence corresponds with the bright core seen in white-light coronagraphs.[6]

Solar cycle

Further information: Solar cycle

The frequency of ejections depends on the phase of the solar cycle: from about 0.2 per day near the solar minimum to 3.5 per day near the solar maximum.[13]

Propagation

Current knowledge of CME kinematics indicates that the ejection starts with an initial pre-acceleration phase characterized by a slow rising motion, followed by a period of rapid acceleration away from the Sun until a near-constant velocity is reached. Some balloon CMEs, usually the slowest ones, lack this three-stage evolution, instead accelerating slowly and continuously throughout their flight. Even for CMEs with a well-defined acceleration stage, the pre-acceleration stage is often absent, or perhaps unobservable.[citation needed]

CMEs reach velocities from 20 to 3,200 km/s (12 to 1,988 mi/s) with an average speed of 489 km/s (304 mi/s), based on SOHO/LASCO measurements between 1996 and 2003.[14] These speeds correspond to transit times from the Sun out to Earth's orbit of about 13 hours to 86 days, with about 3.5 days as the average.

Corona

A video of a series of filament and prominence eruptions during solar cycle 24

The shock wave located at the leading edge of some CMEs can produce Type II radio bursts when the shock wave accelerates electrons. Some Type IV radio bursts are also associated with CMEs and have been observed to follow Type II bursts.[6]

Coronal dimming

A coronal dimming is a localized decrease in extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray emissions in the lower corona. When associated with a CME, coronal dimmings are thought to occur predominantly due to a decrease in plasma density caused by mass outflows during the expansion of the associated CME. They often occur either in pairs located within regions of opposite magnetic polarity, a core dimming, or in a more widespread area, a secondary dimming. Core dimmings are interpreted as the footpoint locations of the erupting flux rope; secondary dimmings are interpreted as the result of the expansion of the overall CME structure and are generally more diffuse and shallow.[15]

Coronal dimming was first reported in 1974.[16] Due to their appearance resembling that of coronal holes, they were sometimes referred to as transient coronal holes.[17]

CMEs that have no observed signatures in the low corona are referred to as stealth CMEs.[18][19]

Interplanetary space

CMEs can typically be observed in white-light coronagraphs via Thomson scattering of sunlight off of free electrons within the CME plasma.[20] A typical CME may have any or all of three distinctive features: a dense core, a surrounding cavity of low electron density, and a bright leading edge.[21] The dense core is usually interpreted as a prominence embedded in the CME (see § Eruptive prominences) with the leading edge as an area of compressed plasma ahead of the CME flux rope. However, some CMEs exhibit more complex geometry.[6]

Follow a CME as it passes Venus then Earth, and explore how the Sun drives Earth's winds and oceans

ICMEs typically reach Earth one to five days after leaving the Sun. During their propagation, ICMEs interact with the solar wind and the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). As a consequence, slow ICMEs are accelerated toward the speed of the solar wind and fast ICMEs are decelerated toward the speed of the solar wind.[22] The strongest deceleration or acceleration occurs close to the Sun, but it can continue even beyond Earth orbit (1 AU), which was observed using measurements at Mars[23] and by the Ulysses spacecraft.[24] ICMEs faster than about 500 km/s (310 mi/s) eventually drive a shock wave.[25] This happens when the speed of the ICME in the frame of reference moving with the solar wind is faster than the local fast magnetosonic speed. Such shocks have been observed directly by coronagraphs[26] in the corona, and are related to type II radio bursts. They are thought to form sometimes as low as 2 R☉ (solar radii). They are also closely linked with the acceleration of solar energetic particles.[27]

Magnetic cloud

In the solar wind, CMEs manifest as magnetic clouds. They have been defined as regions of enhanced magnetic field strength, smooth rotation of the magnetic field vector, and low proton temperature.[28] The association between CMEs and magnetic clouds was made by Burlaga et al. in 1982 when a magnetic cloud was observed by Helios-1 two days after being observed by SMM.[29] However, because observations near Earth are usually done by a single spacecraft, many CMEs are not seen as being associated with magnetic clouds. The typical structure observed for a fast CME by a satellite such as ACE is a fast-mode shock wave followed by a dense (and hot) sheath of plasma (the downstream region of the shock) and a magnetic cloud.

Other signatures of magnetic clouds are now used in addition to the one described above: among other, bidirectional superthermal electrons, unusual charge state or abundance of iron, helium, carbon, and/or oxygen.

The typical time for a magnetic cloud to move past a satellite at the L1 point is 1 day corresponding to a radius of 0.15 AU with a typical speed of 450 km/s (280 mi/s) and magnetic field strength of 20 nT.[30]

Impact on Earth

Photo from the ISS of aurora australis during a geomagnetic storm on 29 May 2010. The storm was most likely caused by a CME that had erupted from the Sun on 24 May 2010, five days prior to the storm.
This video features two model runs. One looks at a moderate CME from 2006. The second run examines the consequences of a large CME such as the Carrington-class CME of 1859.

Only a very small fraction of CMEs are directed toward, and reach, the Earth. A CME arriving at Earth results in a shock wave causing a geomagnetic storm that may disrupt Earth's magnetosphere, compressing it on the day side and extending the night-side magnetic tail. When the magnetosphere reconnects on the nightside, it releases power on the order of terawatts directed back toward Earth's upper atmosphere.[citation needed] This can result in events such as the March 1989 geomagnetic storm.

CMEs, along with solar flares, can disrupt radio transmissions and cause damage to satellites and electrical transmission line facilities, resulting in potentially massive and long-lasting power outages.[31][32]

Shocks in the upper corona driven by CMEs can also accelerate solar energetic particles toward the Earth resulting in gradual solar particle events. Interactions between these energetic particles and the Earth can cause an increase in the number of free electrons in the ionosphere, especially in the high-latitude polar regions, enhancing radio wave absorption, especially within the D-region of the ionosphere, leading to polar cap absorption events.[33]

The interaction of CMEs with the Earth's magnetosphere leads to dramatic changes in the outer radiation belt, with either a decrease or an increase of relativistic particle fluxes by orders of magnitude.[quantify][34] The changes in radiation belt particle fluxes are caused by acceleration, scattering and radial diffusion of relativistic electrons, due to the interactions with various plasma waves.[35]

Halo coronal mass ejections

A halo coronal mass ejection is a CME which appears in white-light coronagraph observations as an expanding ring completely surrounding the occulting disk of the coronagraph. Halo CMEs are interpreted as CMEs directed toward or away from the observing coronagraph. When the expanding ring does not completely surround the occulting disk, but has an angular width of more than 120 degrees around the disk, the CME is referred to as a partial halo coronal mass ejection. Partial and full halo CMEs have been found to make up about 10% of all CMEs with about 4% of all CMEs being full halo CMEs.[36] Frontside, or Earth-direct, halo CMEs are often associated with Earth-impacting CMEs; however, not all frontside halo CMEs impact Earth.[37]

Future risk

According to a report published in 2012 by physicist Pete Riley of Predictive Science Inc., the chance of Earth being hit by a Carrington-class storm between 2012 and 2022 was 12%.[38][39]

In 2019, researchers used an alternative method (Weibull distribution) and estimated the chance of Earth being hit by a Carrington-class storm in the next decade to be between 0.46% and 1.88%.[40]

History

Further information: Solar observation

First traces

The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, coincided with the first-observed solar flare on 1 September 1859. The resulting solar storm of 1859 is referred to as the Carrington Event. The flare and the associated sunspots were visible to the naked eye, and the flare was independently observed by English astronomers R. C. Carrington and R. Hodgson. At around the same time as the flare, a magnetometer at Kew Gardens recorded what would become known as a magnetic crochet, a magnetic field detected by ground-based magnetometers induced by a perturbation of Earth's ionosphere by ionizing soft X-rays. This could not easily be understood at the time because it predated the discovery of X-rays in 1895 and the recognition of the ionosphere in 1902.

About 18 hours after the flare, further geomagnetic perturbations were recorded by multiple magnetometers as a part of a geomagnetic storm. The storm took down parts of the recently created US telegraph network, starting fires and shocking some telegraph operators.[32]

Historical records were collected and new observations recorded in annual summaries by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific between 1953 and 1960.[41]

First optical observations

The first optical observation of a CME was made on 14 December 1971 using the coronagraph of Orbiting Solar Observatory 7 (OSO-7). It was first described by R. Tousey of the Naval Research Laboratory in a research paper published in 1973.[42] The discovery image (256 × 256 pixels) was collected on a Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) vidicon tube, transferred to the instrument computer after being digitized to 7 bits. Then it was compressed using a simple run-length encoding scheme and sent down to the ground at 200 bit/s. A full, uncompressed image would take 44 minutes to send down to the ground. The telemetry was sent to ground support equipment (GSE) which built up the image onto Polaroid print. David Roberts, an electronics technician working for NRL who had been responsible for the testing of the SEC-vidicon camera, was in charge of day-to-day operations. He thought that his camera had failed because certain areas of the image were much brighter than normal. But on the next image the bright area had moved away from the Sun and he immediately recognized this as being unusual and took it to his supervisor, Dr. Guenter Brueckner,[43] and then to the solar physics branch head, Dr. Tousey. Earlier observations of coronal transients or even phenomena observed visually during solar eclipses are now understood as essentially the same thing.

Instruments

On 1 November 1994, NASA launched the Wind spacecraft as a solar wind monitor to orbit Earth's L1 Lagrange point as the interplanetary component of the Global Geospace Science (GGS) Program within the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program. The spacecraft is a spin axis-stabilized satellite that carries eight instruments measuring solar wind particles from thermal to greater than MeV energies, electromagnetic radiation from DC to 13 MHz radio waves, and gamma-rays.[citation needed]

On 25 October 2006, NASA launched STEREO, two near-identical spacecraft which, from widely separated points in their orbits, are able to produce the first stereoscopic images of CMEs and other solar activity measurements. The spacecraft orbit the Sun at distances similar to that of Earth, with one slightly ahead of Earth and the other trailing. Their separation gradually increased so that after four years they were almost diametrically opposite each other in orbit.[44][45]

Notable coronal mass ejections

Further information: List of solar storms

On 9 March 1989, a CME occurred, which struck Earth four days later on 13 March. It caused power failures in Quebec, Canada and short-wave radio interference.

On 23 July 2012, a massive, and potentially damaging, solar superstorm (solar flare, CME, solar EMP) occurred but missed Earth,[38][46] an event that many scientists consider to be Carrington-class event.

On 14 October 2014, an ICME was photographed by the Sun-watching spacecraft PROBA2 (ESA), Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (ESA/NASA), and Solar Dynamics Observatory (NASA) as it left the Sun, and STEREO-A observed its effects directly at 1 AU. ESA's Venus Express gathered data. The CME reached Mars on 17 October and was observed by the Mars Express, MAVEN, Mars Odyssey, and Mars Science Laboratory missions. On 22 October, at 3.1 AU, it reached comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, perfectly aligned with the Sun and Mars, and was observed by Rosetta. On 12 November, at 9.9 AU, it was observed by Cassini at Saturn. The New Horizons spacecraft was at 31.6 AU approaching Pluto when the CME passed three months after the initial eruption, and it may be detectable in the data. Voyager 2 has data that can be interpreted as the passing of the CME, 17 months after. The Curiosity rover's RAD instrument, Mars Odyssey, Rosetta and Cassini showed a sudden decrease in galactic cosmic rays (Forbush decrease) as the CME's protective bubble passed by.[47][48]

Stellar coronal mass ejections

There have been a small number of CMEs observed on other stars, all of which as of 2016 have been found on red dwarfs.[49] These have been detected mainly by spectroscopy, most often by studying Balmer lines: the material ejected toward the observer causes asymmetry in the blue wing of the line profiles due to Doppler shift.[50] This enhancement can be seen in absorption when it occurs on the stellar disc (the material is cooler than its surrounding), and in emission when it is outside the disc. The observed projected velocities of CMEs range from ≈84 to 5,800 km/s (52 to 3,600 mi/s).[51][52] There are few stellar CME candidates in shorter wavelengths in UV or X-ray data. [53] [54] [55] [56] Compared to activity on the Sun, CME activity on other stars seems to be far less common.[50][57] The low number of stellar CME detections can be caused by lower intrinsic CME rates compared to the models (e.g. due to magnetic suppression), projection effects, or overestimated Balmer signatures because of the unknown plasma parameters of the stellar CMEs. [58]

See also

References

  1. ^ Christian, Eric R. (5 March 2012). "Coronal Mass Ejections". NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. Archived from the original on 10 April 2000. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  2. ^ Hathaway, David H. (14 August 2014). "Coronal Mass Ejections". NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center. Archived from the original on 3 July 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
  3. ^ "Coronal Mass Ejections". NOAA/Space Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
  4. ^ Morring, Frank Jr. (14 January 2013). "Major Solar Event Could Devastate Power Grid". Aviation Week & Space Technology. pp. 49–50. But the most serious potential for damage rests with the transformers that maintain the proper voltage for efficient transmission of electricity through the grid. [verification needed]
  5. ^ Fox, Nicky. "Coronal Mass Ejections". NASA/International Solar-Terrestrial Physics. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
  6. ^ a b c d Vial, Jean-Claude; Engvold, Oddbjørn, eds. (2015). Solar Prominences. ISBN 978-3-319-10416-4.
  7. ^ "Scientists unlock the secrets of exploding plasma clouds on the sun". Eurekalert.org. American Physical Society. 8 November 2010. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
  8. ^ Phillips, Tony, ed. (1 March 2001). "Cannibal Coronal Mass Ejections". Science News. NASA. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
  9. ^ Green, Lucie (2014). 15 Million Degrees. Viking. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-670-92218-5.
  10. ^ Holman, Gordon D. (April 2006). "The Mysterious Origins of Solar Flares". Scientific American. 294 (4): 38–45. Bibcode:2006SciAm.294d..38H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0406-38. PMID 16596878.
  11. ^ Andrews, M. D. (December 2003). "A Search for CMEs Associated with Big Flares". Solar Physics. 218 (1): 261–279. Bibcode:2003SoPh..218..261A. doi:10.1023/B:SOLA.0000013039.69550.bf. S2CID 122381553.
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Further reading

Books

  • Gopalswamy, Natchimuthukonar; Mewaldt, Richard; Torsti, Jarmo (2006). Gopalswamy, Natchimuthukonar; Mewaldt, Richard A.; Torsti, Jarmo (eds.). Solar Eruptions and Energetic Particles. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 165. American Geophysical Union. Bibcode:2006GMS...165.....G. doi:10.1029/GM165. ISBN 0-87590-430-0. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)

Internet articles

External links

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