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Added an excerpt about the proposal to stabilize Amundsen Sea glaciers. Ocean geoengineering entry had no references and was literally self-contradicting, so I replaced it with glacier stabilization entry instead.
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The following methods are not termed "climate engineering" in the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|latest IPCC assessment report]] in 2022<ref name="AR6 WGIII Ch 1" />{{rp|6–11}} but are nevertheless included in other publications on this topic:{{cn|date=December 2022}}<ref name=":04" />
The following methods are not termed "climate engineering" in the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report|latest IPCC assessment report]] in 2022<ref name="AR6 WGIII Ch 1" />{{rp|6–11}} but are nevertheless included in other publications on this topic:{{cn|date=December 2022}}<ref name=":04" />
* [[Passive daytime radiative cooling]]
* [[Passive daytime radiative cooling]]
* Ocean geoengineering (many of the methods grouped as "ocean engineering" are actually simply [[carbon sequestration]] techniques and hence included in the carbon dioxide removal category)
* Ground-level albedo modification - a process of increasing Earth's albedo through the means of altering things on the Earth's surface. Examples include planting light-colored plants to help with reflecting sunlight back into space.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zhuosen |last2=Schaaf |first2=Crystal B. |last3=Sun |first3=Qingsong |last4=Kim |first4=JiHyun |last5=Erb |first5=Angela M. |last6=Gao |first6=Feng |last7=Román |first7=Miguel O. |last8=Yang |first8=Yun |last9=Petroy |first9=Shelley |last10=Taylor |first10=Jeffrey R. |last11=Masek |first11=Jeffrey G. |last12=Morisette |first12=Jeffrey T. |last13=Zhang |first13=Xiaoyang |last14=Papuga |first14=Shirley A. |date=2017-07-01 |title=Monitoring land surface albedo and vegetation dynamics using high spatial and temporal resolution synthetic time series from Landsat and the MODIS BRDF/NBAR/albedo product |journal=International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation |language=en |volume=59 |pages=104–117 |doi=10.1016/j.jag.2017.03.008 |issn=1569-8432 |pmc=7641169 |pmid=33154713}}</ref>
* Ground-level albedo modification - a process of increasing Earth's albedo through the means of altering things on the Earth's surface. Examples include planting light-colored plants to help with reflecting sunlight back into space.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zhuosen |last2=Schaaf |first2=Crystal B. |last3=Sun |first3=Qingsong |last4=Kim |first4=JiHyun |last5=Erb |first5=Angela M. |last6=Gao |first6=Feng |last7=Román |first7=Miguel O. |last8=Yang |first8=Yun |last9=Petroy |first9=Shelley |last10=Taylor |first10=Jeffrey R. |last11=Masek |first11=Jeffrey G. |last12=Morisette |first12=Jeffrey T. |last13=Zhang |first13=Xiaoyang |last14=Papuga |first14=Shirley A. |date=2017-07-01 |title=Monitoring land surface albedo and vegetation dynamics using high spatial and temporal resolution synthetic time series from Landsat and the MODIS BRDF/NBAR/albedo product |journal=International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation |language=en |volume=59 |pages=104–117 |doi=10.1016/j.jag.2017.03.008 |issn=1569-8432 |pmc=7641169 |pmid=33154713}}</ref>
* Glacier stabilization - proposals aiming to slow down or prevent [[sea level rise]] caused by the collapse of notable marine-terminating [[glacier]]s, such as [[Jakobshavn Glacier]] in [[Greenland]] or [[Thwaites Glacier]] and [[Pine Island Glacier]] in [[Antarctica]]. It may be possible to bolster some glaciers directly,<ref name="Wolovick2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Wolovick |first1=Michael J. |last2=Moore |first2=John C. |date=20 September 2018 |title=Stopping the flood: could we use targeted geoengineering to mitigate sea level rise? |url=https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/16/397/2022/ |journal=The Cryosphere |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=2955–2967 |language=en |doi=10.5194/tc-12-2955-2018 }}</ref> but blocking the flow of [[ocean heat content|ever-warming ocean water]] at a distance, allowing it more time to mix with the cooler water around the glacier, is likely to be far more effective.<ref name="Wolovick2023a">{{Cite journal |last1=Wolovick |first1=Michael |last2=Moore |first2=John |last3=Keefer |first3=Bowie |date=27 March 2023 |title=Feasibility of ice sheet conservation using seabed anchored curtains |url=https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/2/4/pgad103/7087219 |journal=PNAS Nexus |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=pgad053 |language=en |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad053 }}</ref><ref name="Wolovick2023b">{{Cite journal |last1=Wolovick |first1=Michael |last2=Moore |first2=John |last3=Keefer |first3=Bowie |date=27 March 2023 |title=The potential for stabilizing Amundsen Sea glaciers via underwater curtains |url=https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/2/4/pgad103/7087219 |journal=PNAS Nexus |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=pgad103 |language=en |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad103 }}</ref><ref name="MIT2022">{{Cite web|title=The radical intervention that might save the "doomsday" glacier|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/01/14/1043523/save-doomsday-thwaites-glacier-antarctica/|access-date=2022-01-14|website=MIT Technology Review|language=en}}</ref>
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==== Submarine forest ====
==== Submarine forest ====
Another 2022 experiment attempted to sequester carbon using [[giant kelp]] planted off the [[Namibia]]n coast.<ref name=":0" /> Whilst this approach has been called "ocean geoengineering" by the researchers it is just another form of carbon dioxide removal via sequestration. Another term that is used to describe this process is ''[[blue carbon]] management'' and also ''marine geoengineering''.
Another 2022 experiment attempted to sequester carbon using [[giant kelp]] planted off the [[Namibia]]n coast.<ref name=":0" /> Whilst this approach has been called "ocean geoengineering" by the researchers it is just another form of carbon dioxide removal via sequestration. Another term that is used to describe this process is ''[[blue carbon]] management'' and also ''marine geoengineering''.

==== Glacier stabilization ====
{{excerpt|Thwaites Glacier#Climate engineering|paragraphs=1,2|file=no}}


==Issues==
==Issues==

Revision as of 11:55, 16 July 2023

"Geoengineering" redirects here. For other uses, see Geoengineering (disambiguation).

Climate engineering (also called geoengineering) is a term used for both carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management, also called solar geoengineering, when applied at a planetary scale.[1]: 6–11  However, they have very different geophysical characteristics which is why the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change no longer uses this overarching term.[1]: 6–11 [2] Carbon dioxide removal approaches are part of climate change mitigation. Solar geoengineering involves reflecting some sunlight (solar radiation) back to space.[3] All forms of geoengineering are not a standalone solution to climate change, but need to be coupled with other forms of climate change mitigation.[4] Another approach to geoengineering is to increase the Earth's thermal emittance through passive radiative cooling.[5][6][7]

Carbon dioxide removal is defined as "Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO2 sinks and direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage, but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly caused by human activities."[2]

Some types of climate engineering are highly controversial due to the large uncertainties around effectiveness, side effects and unforeseen consequences.[8] However, the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of the trajectory of climate change without them.[9][10]

Definitions

Climate engineering (or geoengineering) has been used as an umbrella term for both carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management (or solar geoengineering), when applied at a planetary scale.[1]: 6–11  However, these two methods have very different geophysical characteristics, which is why the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change no longer uses this term.[1]: 6–11 [2] This decision was communicated in around 2018, see for example the "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C".[11]: 550 

Some authors, for example in the mainstream media, also include passive daytime radiative cooling, "ocean geoengineering" and others in the term of climate engineering.[12][8]

Specific technologies that fall into the "climate engineering" umbrella term include:[13]: 30 

The following methods are not termed "climate engineering" in the latest IPCC assessment report in 2022[1]: 6–11  but are nevertheless included in other publications on this topic:[citation needed][8]


Methods

Carbon dioxide removal

This section is an excerpt from Carbon dioxide removal.[edit]
Planting trees is a nature-based way to temporarily remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.[30][31]

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is a process in which carbon dioxide (CO2) is removed from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities and durably stored in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products.[32]: 2221  This process is also known as carbon removal, greenhouse gas removal or negative emissions. CDR is more and more often integrated into climate policy, as an element of climate change mitigation strategies.[33][34] Achieving net zero emissions will require first and foremost deep and sustained cuts in emissions, and then—in addition—the use of CDR ("CDR is what puts the net into net zero emissions"[35]). In the future, CDR may be able to counterbalance emissions that are technically difficult to eliminate, such as some agricultural and industrial emissions.[36]: 114 

CDR includes methods that are implemented on land or in aquatic systems. Land-based methods include afforestation, reforestation, agricultural practices that sequester carbon in soils (carbon farming), bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), and direct air capture combined with storage.[36]: 115  There are also CDR methods that use oceans and other water bodies. Those are called ocean fertilization, ocean alkalinity enhancement,[37] wetland restoration and blue carbon approaches.[36]: 115  A detailed analysis needs to be performed to assess how much negative emissions a particular process achieves. This analysis includes life cycle analysis and "monitoring, reporting, and verification" (MRV) of the entire process.[38] Carbon capture and storage (CCS) are not regarded as CDR because CCS does not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere.

Solar geoengineering

refer to caption and image description
Proposed solar geoengineering using a tethered balloon to inject sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere
This section is an excerpt from Solar radiation modification.[edit]

Solar radiation modification (SRM), or solar geoengineering, is a type of climate engineering (or geoengineering) in which sunlight (solar radiation) would be reflected back to outer space to offset human-caused climate change. There are multiple potential approaches, with stratospheric aerosol injection being the most-studied, followed by marine cloud brightening. SRM could be a temporary measure to limit climate-change impacts while greenhouse gas emissions are reduced and carbon dioxide is removed[39] but would not be a substitute for reducing emissions.

Studies using climate models have generally shown that SRM could reduce many adverse effects of climate change. Specifically, controlled stratospheric aerosol injection appears able to greatly moderate most environmental impacts—especially warming—and consequently most ecological, economic, and other impacts of climate change across most regions. However, because warming from greenhouse gases and cooling from SRM would operate differently across latitudes and seasons, a world where global warming would be offset by SRM would have a different climate from the world where this warming did not occur in the first place, mainly as the result of an altered hydrological cycle. Furthermore, confidence in the current projections of how SRM would affect regional climate and ecosystems is low.[39]

Passive daytime radiative cooling

Enhancing the thermal emissivity of Earth through passive daytime radiative cooling has been proposed as an alternative or "third approach" to geoengineering[5][40] that is "less intrusive" and more predictable or reversible than stratospheric aerosol injection.[41]

This section is an excerpt from Passive daytime radiative cooling.[edit]
Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) can lower temperatures with zero energy consumption or pollution by radiating heat into outer space. Widespread application has been proposed as a solution to global warming.[42]

Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) is a zero-energy building cooling method proposed as a solution to reduce air conditioning, lower urban heat island effect, cool human body temperatures in extreme heat, move toward carbon neutrality and control global warming by enhancing terrestrial heat flow to outer space through the installation of thermally-emissive surfaces on Earth that require zero energy consumption or pollution.[43][44][45][46][47][42][48][49][50] In contrast to compression-based cooling systems that are prevalently used (e.g., air conditioners), consume substantial amounts of energy, have a net heating effect, require ready access to electricity and often require coolants that are ozone-depleting or have a strong greenhouse effect,[51][52] application of PDRCs may also increase the efficiency of systems benefiting from a better cooling, such like photovoltaic systems, dew collection techniques, and thermoelectric generators.[53][54]

PDRC surfaces are designed to be high in solar reflectance (to minimize heat gain) and strong in longwave infrared (LWIR) thermal radiation heat transfer through the atmosphere's infrared window (8–13 µm) to cool temperatures even during the daytime.[55][56][57] It is also referred to as passive radiative cooling, daytime passive radiative cooling, radiative sky cooling, photonic radiative cooling, and terrestrial radiative cooling.[56][57][53][58] PDRC differs from solar radiation management because it increases radiative heat emission rather than merely reflecting the absorption of solar radiation.[59]

Ocean geoengineering

Main article: Carbon sequestration § Sequestration techniques in oceans
See also: Ocean fertilization

Ocean geoengineering involves adding material such as lime or iron to the ocean to affect its ability to support marine life and/or sequester CO
2. In 2021 the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) requested $2.5 billion funds for research in the following decade, specifically including field tests.[12]

Ocean liming

Main articles: Carbon sequestration § Adding bases to neutralize acids, and Ocean acidification § Carbon removal technologies which add alkalinity

Enriching seawater with calcium hydroxide (lime) has been reported to lower ocean acidity, which reduces pressure on marine life such as oysters and absorb CO
2. The added lime raised the water's pH, capturing CO
2 in the form of calcium bicarbonate or as carbonate deposited in mollusk shells. Lime is produced in volume for the cement industry.[12] This was assessed in 2022 in an experiment in Apalachicola, Florida in an attempt to halt declining oyster populations. pH levels increased modestly, as CO
2 was reduced by 70 ppm.[12]

A 2014 experiment added sodium hydroxide (lye) to part of Australia's Great Barrier Reef. It raised pH levels to nearly preindustrial levels.[12]

However, producing alkaline materials typically releases large amounts of CO
2, partially offsetting the sequestration. Alkaline additives become diluted and dispersed in one month, without durable effects, such that if necessary, the program could be ended without leaving long-term effects.[12]

Iron fertilization

This section is an excerpt from Iron fertilization.[edit]
Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron-containing compounds (like iron sulfate) to iron-poor areas of the ocean surface to stimulate phytoplankton production. This is intended to enhance biological productivity and/or accelerate carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration from the atmosphere. Iron is a trace element necessary for photosynthesis in plants. It is highly insoluble in sea water and in a variety of locations is the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth. Large algal blooms can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters. These blooms can nourish other organisms.

Submarine forest

Another 2022 experiment attempted to sequester carbon using giant kelp planted off the Namibian coast.[12] Whilst this approach has been called "ocean geoengineering" by the researchers it is just another form of carbon dioxide removal via sequestration. Another term that is used to describe this process is blue carbon management and also marine geoengineering.

Glacier stabilization

Section 'Climate engineering' not found

Issues

Vague meaning of the term

According to climate economist Gernot Wagner the term "geoengineering" is "largely an artefact and a result of the terms frequent use in popular discourse" and "so vague and all-encompassing as to have lost much meaning".[8]: 14 

Moral hazard and ethics

Climate engineering may reduce the urgency of reducing carbon emissions,[60] a form of moral hazard. However, several public opinion surveys and focus groups reported either desire to increase emission cuts in the presence of climate engineering, or of no effect.[61][62][63] The Union of Concerned Scientists points to the danger that the technology will become an excuse not to address the root causes of climate change, slow our emissions reductions and start moving toward a low-carbon economy.[64] Other modelling work suggests that the prospect of climate engineering may in fact increase the likelihood of emissions reduction.[65][66]

If climate engineering can alter the climate then this raises questions whether humans have the right to deliberately change the climate, and under what conditions. For example, using climate engineering to stabilize temperatures is not the same as doing so to optimize the climate for some other purpose. Some religious traditions express views on the relationship between humans and their surroundings that encourage (to conduct responsible stewardship) or discourage (to avoid hubris) explicit actions to affect climate.[67]

Opponents offer several objections:[68] Climate engineering could reduce pressure for emissions reductions, which could exacerbate overall climate risks. Also, most efforts have only temporary effects, requiring ever-increasing interventions which imply rapid rebound if they are not sustained. Others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts.[68][69][70]

Hesitation

Some environmental organizations (such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace) have been reluctant to endorse or oppose solar geoengineering, but are often more supportive of nature-based carbon dioxide removal projects, such as afforestation and peatland restoration.[60][71]

Interventions at large scale run a greater risk of unintended disruptions of natural systems, resulting in a dilemma that such disruptions might be more damaging than the climate damage that they offset.[9]

Public perception

A large 2018 study used an online survey to investigate public perceptions of six climate engineering methods in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.[13] Public awareness of climate engineering was low; less than a fifth of respondents reported prior knowledge. Perceptions of the six climate engineering methods proposed (three from the carbon dioxide removal group and three from the solar geoengineering group) were largely negative and frequently associated with attributes like 'risky', 'artificial' and 'unknown effects'. Carbon dioxide removal methods were preferred over solar geoengineering. Public perceptions were remarkably stable with only minor differences between the different countries in the surveys.[13][72]

History

Several organizations have investigated climate engineering with a view to evaluating its potential, including the US Congress,[73] the US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine,[74] the Royal Society,[75] the UK Parliament,[76] the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,[77] and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The IMechE report examined a small subset of proposed methods (air capture, urban albedo and algal-based CO2 capture techniques), and its main conclusions were that climate engineering should be researched and trialed at the small scale alongside a wider decarbonization of the economy.[77]

The Royal Society review examined a wide range of proposed climate engineering methods and evaluated them in terms of effectiveness, affordability, timeliness, and safety (assigning qualitative estimates in each assessment). The key recommendations reports were that "Parties to the UNFCCC should make increased efforts towards mitigating and adapting to climate change, and in particular to agreeing to global emissions reductions", and that "[nothing] now known about geoengineering options gives any reason to diminish these efforts".[78] Nonetheless, the report also recommended that "research and development of climate engineering options should be undertaken to investigate whether low-risk methods can be made available if it becomes necessary to reduce the rate of warming this century".[78]

In 2009, a review examined the scientific plausibility of proposed methods rather than the practical considerations such as engineering feasibility or economic cost. The authors found that "[air] capture and storage shows the greatest potential, combined with afforestation, reforestation and bio-char production", and noted that "other suggestions that have received considerable media attention, in particular, "ocean pipes" appear to be ineffective".[79] They concluded that "[climate] geoengineering is best considered as a potential complement to the mitigation of CO2 emissions, rather than as an alternative to it".[79]

In 2015, the US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concluded a 21-month project to study the potential impacts, benefits, and costs of climate engineering. The differences between these two classes of climate engineering "led the committee to evaluate the two types of approaches separately in companion reports, a distinction it hopes carries over to future scientific and policy discussions."[80][81][82] The resulting study titled Climate Intervention was released in February 2015 and consists of two volumes: Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth[83] and Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration.[84] According to their brief about the study:[85][83]

Climate intervention is no substitute for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions and adaptation efforts aimed at reducing the negative consequences of climate change. However, as our planet enters a period of changing climate never before experienced in recorded human history, interest is growing in the potential for deliberate intervention in the climate system to counter climate change... Carbon dioxide removal strategies address a key driver of climate change, but research is needed to fully assess if any of these technologies could be appropriate for large-scale deployment. Albedo modification strategies could rapidly cool the planet's surface but pose environmental and other risks that are not well understood and therefore should not be deployed at climate-altering scales; more research is needed to determine if albedo modification approaches could be viable in the future.

In June 2023 the US government released a report that recommended conducting research on stratospheric aerosol injection and marine cloud brightening.[86]

See also

References

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  5. ^ a b Zevenhovena, Ron; Fält, Martin (June 2018). "Radiative cooling through the atmospheric window: A third, less intrusive geoengineering approach". Energy. 152 – via Elsevier Science Direct. An alternative, third geoengineering approach would be enhanced cooling by thermal radiation from the Earth's surface into space.
  6. ^ Wang, Tong; Wu, Yi; Shi, Lan; Hu, Xinhua; Chen, Min; Wu, Limin (2021). "A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling". Nature Communications. 12 (365): 365. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7. PMC 7809060. PMID 33446648. One possibly alternative approach is passive radiative cooling—a sky-facing surface on the Earth spontaneously cools by radiating heat to the ultracold outer space through the atmosphere's longwave infrared (LWIR) transparency window (λ ~ 8–13 μm).
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  24. ^ Crutzen, P. J. (2006). "Albedo Enhancement by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: A Contribution to Resolve a Policy Dilemma?". Climatic Change. 77 (3–4): 211–220. Bibcode:2006ClCh...77..211C. doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9101-y.
  25. ^ Wang, Zhuosen; Schaaf, Crystal B.; Sun, Qingsong; Kim, JiHyun; Erb, Angela M.; Gao, Feng; Román, Miguel O.; Yang, Yun; Petroy, Shelley; Taylor, Jeffrey R.; Masek, Jeffrey G.; Morisette, Jeffrey T.; Zhang, Xiaoyang; Papuga, Shirley A. (2017-07-01). "Monitoring land surface albedo and vegetation dynamics using high spatial and temporal resolution synthetic time series from Landsat and the MODIS BRDF/NBAR/albedo product". International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 59: 104–117. doi:10.1016/j.jag.2017.03.008. ISSN 1569-8432. PMC 7641169. PMID 33154713.
  26. ^ Wolovick, Michael J.; Moore, John C. (20 September 2018). "Stopping the flood: could we use targeted geoengineering to mitigate sea level rise?". The Cryosphere. 12 (9): 2955–2967. doi:10.5194/tc-12-2955-2018.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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