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United Kingdom–European Union relations

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European Union–United Kingdom relations
Map indicating locations of European Union and United Kingdom

European Union
United Kingdom
Diplomatic mission
European Union Delegation, LondonUnited Kingdom Mission, Brussels
Envoy
Ambassador Pedro SerranoAmbassador Lindsay Croisdale-Appleby

Relations between the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) are governed, since 1 January 2021, by the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA).

Relations trace back to the foundation of the European Communities, the European Union's predecessor, in 1957. The UK was a member state of the bloc after joining it in 1973 (which was confirmed in a referendum on membership in 1975) until it became the first country to voluntarily end its membership on 31 January 2020 after a second referendum on membership was held in 2016 which resulted in 51.9% of voters opting to leave.

The Brexit withdrawal agreement now plays a significant role in relations between the two polities. The United Kingdom shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland, an EU member state, via Northern Ireland, which has remained a de facto member of the European Single Market and maintained the authority of the European Court of Justice under the Northern Ireland Protocol. Relations between the UK and the EU have seen improvement since the proposal of the Windsor Framework.

History

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Precedents

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See also: Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities
President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen with British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak with in the 2023 AI Safety Summit in Bletchley Park, 2 November 2023

The UK failed to take part in the diplomatic discussions that led up to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), likewise later withdrawing from negotiations for the constitution of the European Economic Community (EEC).[1]

The United Kingdom's failed applications to join the European Communities (EC) in 1963 and 1967 were vetoed by the president of France, Charles de Gaulle, who said that "a number of aspects of Britain's economy, from working practices to agriculture" had "made Britain incompatible with Europe" and that Britain harboured a "deep-seated hostility" to any pan-European project.[2] Once de Gaulle had relinquished the French presidency in 1969, the UK made a third and successful application for membership.

UK membership in the bloc (1973–2020)

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Main articles: United Kingdom membership of the European Economic Area, United Kingdom membership of the European Union, and Brexit

Following the UK accession to the EC in 1973, the former got to renegotiate membership terms, vied for budgetary rebates and requested opt-outs from the single currency and other common policies.[3] The protectionist Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in particular was often at the center of the UK conflicts with the rest of the EC, underpinning its reputation as an "awkward partner" within the bloc.[4]

Since 1977, both pro- and anti-European views have had majority support at different times, with some dramatic swings between the two camps.[5] Conservative and Labour parties alike usually pandered to the prejudices towards the EC espoused by the Britons, who rather than commit to a European idea, generally preferred to hanker for the bygone days of British world hegemony.[6] In the United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum of 1975, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. The highest-ever rejection of membership was in 1980, the first full year of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's term of office, with 65% opposed to and 26% in favour of membership.[5] As a member of the EU, the United Kingdom never adopted the use of the euro or joined the Schengen Area, which, bringing down border controls in a number of countries, thereby allowed for free movement of citizens.[7] Likewise, the UK government adhered to a long-standing policy of enthusiasm for EU enlargement, under the premise that the addition of more members would undermine any federalising drive (deepening) of the union.[8][3]

Vis-à-vis Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory whose defence and foreign policies are handled by His Majesty's Government, the Spain's accession to the European Communities in 1986, negotiated with the UK inside the bloc from a position of strength, made the former country to renounce its power, recognised by the Treaty of Utrecht, to close its land border with Gibraltar at its discretion.[9] The then Conservative UK government acquiesced to the 1992 Maastricht Treaty (by which the European Union came into existence) as it aligned with its vision of the bloc as essentially a free market.[10]

The 1998 Good Friday Agreement pertaining the end of the ethnonationalist conflict in Northern Ireland was signed under the context of the shared membership of the UK and Ireland in the EU.[11]

UK Prime Minister Theresa May meets with President of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker with in Brussels, Belgium, 21 October 2016

Following the result of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, when 52 percent of those who voted supported 'Brexit' (a portmanteau of "British exit"), the UK negotiated its withdrawal from the European Union. After the vote, British Prime Minister David Cameron, who supported staying in the EU, resigned. Theresa May became the prime minister after his formal resignation. Although she also supported remaining in the EU, she committed to negotiating Britain's exit.[12] The United Kingdom formally left the bloc on 31 January 2020.

Post-Brexit relations (since 2020)

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Main article: Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union

On 30 December 2020, after eight months of negotiations, the EU and the UK signed the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement,[13] which governs bilateral relations since its provisional entry into force two days later and which was later ratified by both parties. UK government attempts to unilaterally reject the terms of the agreed Northern Ireland Protocol have exacerbated post-Brexit relations.[14]

Although the United Kingdom has maintained strong relations with some EU member states, the decision to withdraw and subsequent turbulent process of negotiating the Trade and Cooperation Agreement sparked criticism of the United Kingdom across the EU.[15] However, UK-EU collaborative discussions on the response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, which saw the UK invited to an EU Foreign Affairs Council meeting for the first time since Brexit, and the successful negotiation of the Windsor Framework for Northern Ireland between the UK and EU, has indicated a gradual improvement of relations over time.[16][17]

On June 28, 2023, the EU and UK signed a memorandum of understanding to enhance cooperation on financial services. Chancellor Jeremy Hunt described the signing as a significant moment, highlighting the interconnections of the EU and UK financial markets. The agreement establishes a forum for regular discussions on voluntary regulatory cooperation. However, it does not indicate regulatory alignment or address specific demands from the EU.[18]

Of the 1,218,000 immigrants who came to the United Kingdom in 2023, only 126,000 were citizens of EU member states.[19] BBC reported that "In the 12 months to June 2023, net EU migration was -86,000, meaning more EU nationals left the UK than arrived".[19] EU citizens working in the health and social care sector have been replaced by migrants from non-EU countries such as India and Nigeria.[20][21] After Brexit, the number of EU nationals who were refused entry to the UK increased fivefold.[22]

On 2 October 2024, the UK and the EU agreed to strengthen their relationship following the disruptions caused by Brexit. During talks in Brussels, Keir Starmer and Ursula von der Leyen emphasized their commitment to enhancing cooperation on issues such as economic growth, energy, security, and migration. They reaffirmed their dedication to the Withdrawal Agreement and international law, despite pressure from hard-line Brexiteers regarding the European Convention on Human Rights. They planned to define areas for strengthened cooperation in the coming months and committed to regular meetings, starting with a summit early next year.[23]

Post-Brexit polling

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Main article: Opinion polling on the United Kingdom rejoining the European Union (2020–present)

Following the UK's withdrawal from the EU, polling companies have continued to poll respondents on re-joining the EU.

National polling

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Respondents are regularly polled on their voting intention in a hypothetical referendum on re-joining the EU. This is instead of re-using the leave/ remain question from the 2016 referendum.

Recent polling results have demonstrated a clear lead for "re-join" over "stay[ing] out". A longer example of the following table can be found here.

Dates conducted Pollster Client Sample

size

Rejoin Stay out Neither Lead
26-27 Jan 2023 Omnisis N/A 1,247 49% 29% 22% 20%
19-20 Jan 2023 Omnisis N/A 1,247 47% 31% 22% 16%
11-12 Jan 2023 Omnisis N/A 1,247 44% 31% 25% 13%
5-6 Jan 2023 Omnisis N/A 1,285 49% 30% 21% 19%

In the European Union

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In 2021, Euronews commissioned British pollsters Redfield & Wilton Strategies to conduct a poll in France, Germany, Spain, and Italy on how respondents would feel about the UK re-joining the EU. Support out-weighed opposition across all four countries, with it being lowest in France (36%) and highest in Spain (46%).[24]

Trade

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In 2017, exports to the European Union amounted to £274 billion out of £616 billion in total exports for the UK. The proportion of UK export to the European Union has been noted to be in decline, since exports to non-EU countries have increased at a faster rate.[25]

On the European side, according to Eurostat, exports from the EU 27 to the UK have increased from 316 euro billions in 2015 to 319 euro billions in 2019. In the same time, according to Eurostat, imports from the UK to the EU-27 have increased from 184 euro billions in 2015 to 194 euro billions in 2019.[26]

United Kingdom's foreign relations with EU member states (EU27)

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Country British embassy Reciprocal embassy Notes
 Austria Vienna London British Mission to OSCE and UN Office in Vienna
Main article: Austria–United Kingdom relations
 Belgium Brussels London British Mission to EU and NATO in Brussels
Main article: Belgium–United Kingdom relations
 Bulgaria Sofia London
Main article: Bulgaria–United Kingdom relations
 Croatia Zagreb
Consulate General: Split 		London
Main article: Croatia–United Kingdom relations
 Cyprus High Commission: Nicosia High Commission: London
Main article: Cyprus–United Kingdom relations
 Czech Republic Prague London
Consulate General: Manchester
Main article: Czech Republic–United Kingdom relations
 Denmark Copenhagen London
Main article: Denmark–United Kingdom relations
 Estonia Tallinn London
Main article: Estonia–United Kingdom relations
 Finland Helsinki London
Main article: Finland–United Kingdom relations
 France Paris
Consulates General: Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille 		London
Consulate General: Edinburgh 		British Mission to OECD and UNESCO in Paris and in Council of Europe in Strasbourg
Main article: France–United Kingdom relations
 Germany Berlin
Consulates General: Düsseldorf, Munich 		London
Consulate General: Edinburgh
Main article: Germany–United Kingdom relations
 Greece Athens
Consulates General: Heraklion, Thessaloniki 		London
Main article: Greece–United Kingdom relations
 Hungary Budapest London
Consulate General: Manchester
Main article: Hungary–United Kingdom relations
 Ireland Dublin London
Consulates General: Cardiff, Edinburgh, Manchester 		499 km of common border
Main article: Ireland–United Kingdom relations
 Italy Rome
Consulates General: Milan, Naples 		London
Consulate General: Edinburgh
Main article: Italy–United Kingdom relations
 Latvia Riga London.
 Lithuania Vilnius London
Main article: Lithuania–United Kingdom relations
 Luxembourg Luxembourg London
 Malta High Commission: Valletta High Commission: London
Main article: Malta–United Kingdom relations
 Netherlands The Hague
Consulate General: Amsterdam 		London British Mission to OPCW in The Hague
Main article: Netherlands–United Kingdom relations
 Poland Warsaw London
Consulates General: Belfast, Edinburgh, Manchester
Main article: Poland–United Kingdom relations
 Portugal Lisbon
Consulate General: Portimão 		London
Consulate General: Manchester
Main article: Portugal–United Kingdom relations
 Romania Bucharest London
Consulate General: Edinburgh, Manchester
Main article: Romania–United Kingdom relations
 Slovakia Bratislava London
Main article: Slovakia–United Kingdom relations
 Slovenia Ljubljana London
Main article: Slovenia–United Kingdom relations
 Spain Madrid
Consulates General: Barcelona, Alicante, Ibiza, Las Palmas, Málaga, Palma, Santa Cruz 		London
Consulates General: Edinburgh, Manchester
Main article: Spain–United Kingdom relations
 Sweden Stockholm London
Main article: Sweden–United Kingdom relations

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Carolan, Bruce (2008). "The Birth of the European Union: US and UK Roles in the Creation of a Unified European Community". The Journal of Comparative and International Law. 16 (1): 62.
  2. ^ "Bulgaria Blocks North Macedonia's EU Accession Negotiations - Novinite.com - Sofia News Agency". novinite.com.
  3. ^ a b Duff, Andrew (2020). "Setting the bounds of the European Union" (PDF). European Policy Centre.
  4. ^ Seidel, Katja (2020). "Britain, the common agricultural policy and the challenges of membership in the European Community: a political balancing act". Contemporary British History. 34 (2): 1. doi:10.1080/13619462.2019.1650739. S2CID 202278086.
  5. ^ a b Mortimore, Roger. "Polling history: 40 years of British views on 'in or out' of Europe". The Conversation. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
  6. ^ George, Stephen (2000). "Britain: Anatomy of a Eurosceptic state". Journal of European Integration. 22 (1): 28. doi:10.1080/07036330008429077. S2CID 143485501.
  7. ^ Nugent, Ciara (11 April 2019). "It's Complicated: From the Roman Empire to Brexit, Britain Has Always Struggled to Define Its Relationship With Europe". Time. Retrieved 2020-03-04.
  8. ^ Whitman, Richard G. (2007). "The United Kingdom and Turkish accession: the enlargement instinct prevails". In Tocci, Nathalie (ed.). Conditionality, Impact and Prejudice in EU-Turkey Relations (PDF). p. 120.
  9. ^ Molina, Ignacio (7 May 2018). "Gibraltar, a possible solution: diffused sovereignty and shared functions". Elcano Institute.
  10. ^ George 2000, p. 29.
  11. ^ Tonra, Ben (2021). "Emotion norms: Ireland, Brexit, backstops and protocols". Global Affairs. 7 (2): 157–171. doi:10.1080/23340460.2021.1931399. S2CID 239053429.
  12. ^ "United Kingdom - The "Brexit" referendum". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-03-04.
  13. ^ Barr, Noah A. (2022). "The EU-UK Investment Regime After Brexit: In Search of an Equilibrium?". Global Trade and Customs Journal. 17 (4): 146. doi:10.54648/GTCJ2022020. S2CID 248611272.
  14. ^ Tidey, Alice (10 May 2022). "Sinn Fein's historic win in Northern Ireland may not change anything for the Brexit negotiations". euronews.com.
  15. ^ Henley, Jon (2020-09-10). "'Depressing, frustrating and shocking': European press on UK Brexit move". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
  16. ^ Castle, Stephen (4 March 2022). "How a War Helped Ease a Rift Between Britain and the E.U." The New York Times. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
  17. ^ Gallardo, Cristina (4 March 2022). "Putin blows up Brexit". Politico. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
  18. ^ David, Dharshini; Edser, Nick (2023-06-28). "UK to work more closely with EU on financial services". BBC. Retrieved 2023-07-02.
  19. ^ a b "Migration: How many people come to the UK and how are the salary rules changing?". BBC News. 23 May 2024.
  20. ^ "Net migration drops to 685,000 after hitting record levels, as even more arrived in UK last year than previously thought". LBC. 23 May 2024.
  21. ^ "'Europeans are almost not coming to the UK any more'". Al Jazeera. 9 June 2023.
  22. ^ "Fivefold rise in number of EU citizens refused entry to UK since Brexit". The Guardian. 25 November 2023.
  23. ^ COOK, LORNE (2 October 2024). "The UK and EU vow to mend their Brexit battered ties. They will set a new agenda and hold summits". Retrieved 3 October 2024.
  24. ^ Tidey, Alice (23 June 2021). "Brexit 5 years on: 'We would have you back,' says Europe, in new poll". Euronews. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
  25. ^ "Everything you might want to know about the UK's trade with the EU". 28 August 2018. Retrieved 7 December 2018.
  26. ^ Eurostat, EU trade since 1988 by CN8 [DS-016890]

Further reading

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  • Arnorsson, Agust, and Gylfi Zoega. "On the causes of Brexit." European Journal of Political Economy 55 (2018): 301-323. online
  • Bruno, Randolph L., et al. Foreign direct investment and the relationship between the United Kingdom and the European Union (Springer International Publishing, 2017). excerpt
  • Bulmer, Simon. The member states of the European Union (Oxford University Press, 2020).
  • Mbah, Ruth Endam, and Divine Forcha Wasum. "Russian-Ukraine 2022 War: A review of the economic impact of Russian-Ukraine crisis on the USA, UK, Canada, and Europe." Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 9.3 (2022): 144-153. online
  • O'Rourke, Kevin. A short history of Brexit: From Brentry to backstop (Penguin UK, 2019).
  • Wallace, Helen. "Heading for the Exit: the United Kingdom’s troubled relationship with the European Union." Journal of Contemporary European Research 12.4 (2016). online
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