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"Wu Xia" redirects here. For the 2011 Chinese film, see Wu Xia (film).
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Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinWǔxiá
IPA[ùɕjǎ]
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JyutpingMou5 Hap6
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Hokkien POJBu Kiap
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VietnameseVõ Hiệp

Wuxia (simplified Chinese: 武侠; traditional Chinese: 武俠; pinyin: wǔxiá [ùɕjǎ], literally "martial hero") is a broad genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists. Although wuxia is traditionally a form of literature, its popularity has caused it to spread to diverse art forms like Chinese opera, manhua (Chinese comics), films, television series, and video games. Wuxia is a component of popular culture for many Chinese-speaking communities worldwide.

The word "wuxia" is a compound word composed of the words wu (武), which means "martial", "military", or "armed" and xia (俠), meaning "honorable", "chivalrous", or "hero". A martial artist who follows the code of Xia is often referred to as a xiake (俠客, lit: "follower of xia", "hiệp khách") or youxia (游俠, "wandering xia", "du hiệp"). In some translated works of wuxia, the martial artist is sometimes termed as a "swordsman" although he may not necessarily wield a sword.

Typically, the heroes in Chinese wuxia fiction do not serve a lord, wield military power or belong to the aristocratic class. They are often from the lower social classes of ancient Chinese society. Wuxia heroes are usually bound by a code of chivalry that requires them to right wrongs, especially when the helpless or the poor are oppressed. The wuxia hero fights for righteousness and seeks to remove an oppressor, redress wrongs, or to bring retribution for past misdeeds. The Chinese xia traditions can be contrasted with martial codes from other countries, such as the Japanese samurai's bushido tradition, the chivalry of medieval European knights and the gunslingers of America's Westerns.

History

Earlier precedents

While wuxia as the name of a genre is a recent coinage, stories about the xia date back more than two thousand years. Wuxia stories have their roots in some early youxia stories from 300–200 BC. The Legalist philosopher Han Fei spoke disparaging of the youxias in his chapter On Five 'Maggot' Classes (韩非子·五蠹) on five social classes in the Spring and Autumn Period.[1] Some well known stories include Jing Ke's attempted assassination of the King of Qin and Zhuan Zhu's assassination of King Liao of Wu. In the "Assassins" volume (刺客列傳) of Records of the Grand Historian, Sima Qian outlined a number of notable assassins from the Warring States Period, who undertook tasks of conducting political assassinations of aristocrats and nobles.

These assassins were known as cike (刺客, literally: "stabbing guests"). They usually rendered their loyalties and services to feudal lords and nobles in return for rewards such as riches and women. In another volume of Records of the Grand Historian, Youxia (游俠列傳), Sima Qian detailed several embryonic features of xia culture from his period. These popular phenomena were also documented in other historical records such as the Book of Han and Book of the Later Han.

Xiake stories made a turning point in the Tang Dynasty and returned in the form of chuanqi (傳奇, literally: "legendary tales"). Stories from that era, such as Madame Nie Yin (聶隱娘),[2] The Kunlun Slave, Thirteenth Madame Jing (荆十三娘),[3] The Maid Red String (紅線)[4] and The Bearded Warrior (虬髯客),[5] served as prototypes for the modern wuxia stories.[6] They featured fantasies and isolated protagonists, usually loners who performed daring heroic deeds. During the Song Dynasty similar stories circulated as the contents of hauben, or prompt-books for storytellers.

The genre of the martial or military romance also developed during the Tang, and by the Ming Dynasty had produced Luo Guanzhong's Romance of the Three Kingdoms (possibly actually dating from the late Yuan Dynasty) and Shi Nai'an's novel Water Margin. The former is a romanticised historical retelling of the events of the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period, whilst the latter criticises the deplorable socio-economic status of the late Northern Song Dynasty. Water Margin is often seen as being the first full-length wuxia novel: the portrayal of the characters of the 108 outlaws, and their code of honour and willingness to turn outlaw rather than serve a corrupt government, played an influential role in the development of jianghu culture in later centuries. Romance of the Three Kingdoms is also seen as a possible early antecedent, and contains classic close-combat descriptions that were later borrowed by wuxia writers in their works.

In the Qing Dynasty further developments were the gongan ("public case") and related detective novels, where xia and other heroes, perhaps working with a judge, solved crimes and battled injustice. The famous Justice Bao stories from Sanxia Wuyi (三俠五義, later extended and renamed Qixia Wuyi 七俠五義) and Xiaowuyi (小五義), incorporated much of social justice themes of later wuxia stories. Also appearing during the Qing were the xiayi stories of chivalrous romance, which frequently featured female heroes and supernatural fighting abilities. Novels such as Shigong An Qiwen (施公案奇聞) and Ernü Yingxiong Zhuan (兒女英雄傳) have been cited as the clearest nascent wuxia novels.

The term wuxia as a genre label itself first appeared at the end of the Qing period, a calque of the Japanese bukyō, a genre of oft-militaristic and bushido-influenced adventure fiction. The term was brought to China by writers and students who hoped that China would modernize its military and emphasize martial virtues, and it quickly became entrenched as the term used to refer to xiayi and other predecessors of wuxia proper, while fading into obscurity in Japan itself.[7][8]

Many wuxia works produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties were lost due to the government's strong crackdown and banning of such works. Wuxia works were deemed responsible for brewing anti-governmental sentiments that accounted for rebellions during those eras. The ethos of personal freedom and conflict-readiness of these novels were seen as seditious even in times of peace and stability. The departure from mainstream literature also meant that patronage of this genre was limited to the masses and not to the literati, which led to the stifling of the development of the wuxia genre. Nonetheless, the wuxia genre remained enormously popular with the common people.

20th century

The modern wuxia genre rose to prominence in the early 20th century. The early 20th century and the period from the 1960s–1980s were often regarded as the golden ages of the wuxia genre. Xiang Kairan (Pingjiang Buxiangsheng) became the first notable writer of the wuxia genre, his maiden work being The Peculiar Knights-Errand of the Jianghu (江湖奇侠传).[9][10] It was serialized from 1921 to 1928 and adapted into the first wuxia film, The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple (1928).[11] Zhao Huanting (趙煥亭) of Chronicles of the Loyal Knights-Errand (奇俠精忠傳, serialized 1923–27) was another well-known wuxia writer, situated in Shanghai.[12] Starting from the 1930s, wuxia works proliferated and its center shifted to Beijing and Tianjin in the north. The most representative writers there were known in unison as The Five Great Masters of the Northern School (北派五大家), who were Huanzhu Louzhu (还珠楼主, 《蜀山剑侠传》, The Swordspeople from Shu Mountains), Bai Yu (Twelve Coin Darts 《十二钱镖》), Wang Dulu (鹤铁五部作, The Crane-Iron Pentalogy), Zheng Zhengyin (郑证因, 《鹰爪王》, The King of Eagle Claws) and Zhu Zhenmu (朱贞木, 《七杀碑》, The Seven-Killing Stele).[13][14]

Wuxia fiction was banned by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) after its rise to power in the People's Republic of China. The ban was lifted in the late 1970s with China's liberalisation. During the ban, wuxia writing continued to prevail in the 1960s in other Chinese-speaking regions, such as the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Hong Kong. Writers such as Liang Yusheng and Louis Cha (Jin Yong) spearheaded the founding of the "new school" (新派) wuxia genre that differed largely from its predecessors. These writers wrote serials for newspapers and magazines. They also incorporated several fictional themes such as mystery and romance from other cultures. In Taiwan, Wolong Sheng, Sima Ling, Zhuge Qingyun (诸葛青云) and later Xiao Yi (萧逸) and Gu Long became her most famous practitioners. Since then, Wen Rui'an and Huang Yi (Hong Kong) were the more prominent writers of a later crop. Chen Yuhui (Zheng Feng) is a married contemporary female wuxia novelist who debuted with the novel The Tian-Guan Duo Heroes (天觀雙俠; mainland Chinese title: 多情浪子痴情侠). She writes very much in the spirit of Louis Cha.[15]

There have also been post-80s works written that attempt to create a post-wuxia genre. China's Yu Hua is one of the more notable writers, writing a weird counter-genre short story titled Blood and Plum Blossoms, in which the protagonist goes on a quest to avenge his murdered father. However, he only does this because he is forced to, and not because of any deep seated sense of honor, dignity, or filial piety.

Themes, plots and settings

A 17th century woodblock print of a scene from a play on the Kunlun Nu story.

The modern wuxia stories are basically adventure stories set in ancient China. The plots of wuxia stories vary from writer to writer, but there are distinct similarities between wuxia protagonists and characters from the modern Western fantasy genre. The fantasy element is not a prerequisite of a wuxia story and it is possible for a wuxia story to be realistic. Louis Cha's Swordswoman Riding West on White Horse or The Book and the Sword are examples of possibly realistic wuxia stories. However, the martial arts element is a definite part of a wuxia story, as most of the characters must know some martial arts.

Themes of romance are also strongly featured in several wuxia stories. The protagonists of most wuxia stories usually have beautiful maidens to accompany them on their adventures and the story usually concludes like a fairy tale, where the protagonist and his love interest are married and live happily ever after. The romance element is key in several of Liang Yusheng's stories, such as Baifa Monü Zhuan, and in most of Louis Cha's novels as well.

A typical wuxia story's plot features a young male protagonist who experiences a tragedy such as losing his loved ones. He undertakes several trials and tribulations throughout his adventures and learns several forms of martial arts from various fighters. At the end of the story, the protagonist emerges as a powerful fighter whom few can equal. He uses his abilities to follow the code of xia and offers them chivalrously to mend the ills of the jianghu. For instance, the opening chapters of Louis Cha's works follow a certain pattern; a tragic event occurs, usually one that costs the lives of the newly introduced characters, and then it sets events into motion that will culminate in the primary action of the story.[16]

Other stories may use different structures. For instance, the protagonist is denied being accepted as a student of a martial arts sect. He experiences hardships and trains secretly and waits until there is an opportunity for him to show off his skills and surprise those who had initially looked down on him. Some stories feature a mature hero with powerful martial arts abilities confronting an equally powerful antagonist as his nemesis. The plot will gradually meander to a final dramatic showdown between the protagonist and his nemesis. These types of stories were prevalent during the era of anti-Qing revolutionaries.

Certain stories also have unique plots, such as those by Gu Long and Huang Yi. Gu Long's stories have an element of mystery and are written like detective stories. The protagonist, usually a formidable fighter and intelligent problem-solver, embarks on a quest to solve a mystery such as a murder case. Huang Yi's stories are blended with science fiction.

Despite these genre blending elements, wuxia is primarily an historical genre of fiction. Notwithstanding this, wuxia writers openly admit that they are unable to capture the entire history of a course of events. They choose to structure their stories along the pattern of the protagonist's progression from childhood to adulthood instead. The progression may be symbolic rather than literal, as observed in Louis Cha's The Smiling, Proud Wanderer, where the young Linghu Chong progresses from childish concerns and dalliances into much more adult ones as his unwavering loyalty repeatedly thrusts him into the rocks of betrayal at the hands of his inhuman master.[16]

The Code of Xia

The code of xia (俠) can be likened to the Anglo-Saxon myth of Robin Hood. The hero of a wuxia story keeps his honor by upholding justice and helping the poor, just as Robin Hood robs the rich to help the poor. A typical follower of xia has considerable martial arts abilities that are used not just for personal gain, but employed to achieve the greater good. However, just as Robin Hood is an outlaw, the swordsman may not necessarily submit to higher authority. When part of a larger group, the code of Xia requires the group to maintain social justice within the best of the group's abilities.

The code of xia is composed of two main virtues. Yi (義; righteousness) and xin (信; honor). The code also emphasizes the importance of repaying benefactors after having received deeds of grace (恩) or favor from others, as well as seeking vengeance (仇) to bring villains to justice. However, the importance of vengeance is controversial, as a number of wuxia works stress Buddhist ideals, which includes forgiveness, compassion and a prohibition on killing.

In the jianghu, most fighters are expected to be loyal to their martial arts teacher or shifu (師父, sifu in Cantonese pronunciation). This gave rise to the formation of several complex trees of teacher-student (master-apprentice) relations as well as the various sects such as Shaolin and Wudang. If there are any disputes between fighters, they will choose the honorable way of settling their issues through fighting in duels. This is similar to the one-on-one sword duels adopted by knights in medieval Europe. Only two fighters are involved in each duel and they are usually of the same level or status if they belong to any sect.

Skills and abilities

The martial arts in wuxia stories are based on factual wushu techniques and other Chinese martial arts. However, the mastery of such skills are highly exaggerated in wuxia stories to fictitious and superhuman levels of achievement and prowess. For example, ordinary blows such as kicks or punches can have devastating effects on characters in wuxia fiction, and certain characters who are formidable martial artists can even project streams of energy at opponents to knock them down or stun them. The projection of these energy streams and their impacts can even lead to explosions.

The following is a list of skills and abilities a typical fighter or martial artist in a wuxia story might possess:

  • Martial arts (kungfu) – fighting techniques in a codified sequence called zhaoshi (招式) which are based on actual martial arts.
  • Weapons and objects – combatants use a wide range of weapons in combat. The most commonly used ones are the dao (broadsword or saber), jian (sword), gun (staff), and qiang (spear). Everyday objects such as abaci, benches, fans, ink brushes, smoking pipes, sewing needles, or various musical instruments are also used by characters as weapons as well.
  • Qinggong – literally means "the ability of lightness". Characters can move swiftly and lightly at superhuman speeds. They can glide on water surfaces, scale high walls and mount trees. Qinggong is based on real Chinese martial arts. Some real-life martial artists such as those who practice baguazhang, train in qinggong for years by attaching heavy weights onto their legs.[citation needed] However, its use is highly exaggerated in wuxia stories and films in which characters can circumvent gravity and literally fly.
  • Neijin, Neigong or Neili (内力) – the ability to build up and cultivate mystical "inner energy" (qi) and utilise it for several purposes. Characters use their inner energy for attack and defense purposes when combined with their martial arts. They may also use this form of energy to heal internal wounds or even purge venom from their bodies after being poisoned, or use it to attain superhuman stamina. In the context of wuxia stories, this kind of energy is a prerequisite for practice of qinggong, dianxue (dim mak) and other superhuman feats of speed and strength. The more neili one has, the better one can perform those mentioned feats. Neili is gained by many years of special breathing and physical exercises, consuming (sometimes accidentally or unknowingly) rare herbs, fruits or other substances of legend that are beneficial, or in some cases by deliberate transference from one to another, such as master to student. Neili can be used as a source of power for mystical skills such as projection of energy (i.e., energy blasts), toughening the body to take strikes, increasing physical strength to superhuman level, and other paranomal effects. Fighters who possess these powers draw them from the use of qi originating from the body rather than black magic and wizardry however.
  • Dianxue (simplified Chinese: 点穴; traditional Chinese: 點穴) these stories are most likely the source for the Dim Mak (點脈) and are based, in part, on the real-world techniques of Chin Na (擒拿). Characters use these techniques to kill, paralyze, immobilize or control opponents by attacking their acupressure points (xue 穴) with the bare hand or weapons. A victim may be immobilized for hours after being hit on the acupressure points. Such techniques may be used for healing purposes, when excessive bleeding may be halted when certain acupressure points are pressed. Real-life martial artists do use such techniques in martial arts to paralyze or stun their opponents. Their effectiveness is highly exaggerated in wuxia stories.

In wuxia stories, characters attain the above skills and abilities by devoting themselves to diligent study and practice. The instructions to mastering these skills are often found in "hidden (secret) manuals" known as miji (秘笈). In some stories, specific skills can be learned by spending several years in seclusion with a master or gathering together with a group of fighters to assist each other.

Jianghu

Main article: Jianghu

The Jianghu (江湖) (Cantonese: Gong Woo), which means "rivers and lakes" literally, refers to the world of martial arts.

The jianghu is an alternate universe. It consists of several martial artists gathered in the wulin (武林), usually congregated in sects, clans, disciplines and various schools of martial arts. It is also inhabited by others such as youxia (wandering heroes), nobles, thieves, beggars, priests, healers, merchants and craftsmen. The best wuxia writers draw a vivid picture of the intricate themes of honour, loyalty, love and hatred between the individuals and communities within this milieu.

A common aspect of the jianghu is the tacit suggestion that the courts of law are dysfunctional. All disputes and differences can only be resolved by use of force, as such, predicating the need for the code of xia and acts of chivalry. Law and order within the jianghu is maintained by the various orthodox and righteous sects and heroes. Sometimes, these sects may gather to form an alliance against all evils within the jianghu.

A leader, called the "wulin mengzhu" (武林盟主), is elected from amongst them to lead the sects to ensure law and order within the jianghu. The leader is usually someone with a great reputation for righteousness and a high level of mastery in martial arts, even though he is often involved in some conspiracy or killed. In some cases, the leader may not be among the greatest martial artists in the jianghu. The protagonist of the story may also become the leader by coincidence, while in some other cases such as in the television miniseries Paradise, the position of the leader is hereditary. The leader is an arbiter who presides and adjudicates over all inequities and disputes. The leader is a de jure chief justice of the affairs of the jianghu.

The term jianghu is linked to cultures other than those pertaining to martial arts in wuxia stories. It is also applied to societies where there is no law and order. For instance, the Chinese triads, secret societies and gangs use the term jianghu to describe their world of organized crime. Sometimes, the term jianghu may be replaced by the term "underworld", with reference to the "criminal underworld".

In modern day terminology, jianghu may mean any circle of interest such as show business, sports, etc. Colloquially, retirement is also referred to as "leaving the jianghu" (退出江湖). In wuxia stories, when a reputable fighter decides to retire from the Jianghu, he will do so in a ceremony known as "washing hands in the golden basin" (金盆洗手). He washes his hands in the golden basin filled with water, signifying that he will no longer be involved in the affairs of the jianghu. When a reclusive fighter who had apparently retired from the jianghu reappears, his reappearance is described as "re-entering the jianghu" (重出江湖).

Books and writers

Wuxia stories have become a new genre of writing within Chinese society and have remained popular in several countries with significant Chinese-speaking communities such as Taiwan, Singapore, Vietnam and Malaysia.

The most notable modern wuxia writers are as follows:

Name Active years Some works Additional information
Jin Yong (Louis Cha) (金庸) 1955–1973 The Book and the Sword, Condor Trilogy, Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils, The Smiling, Proud Wanderer, The Deer and the Cauldron The most popular and regarded by some as the most accomplished writer to date. His works have been adapted into films and television series numerous times.
Liang Yusheng (梁羽生) 1955–1984 Qijian Xia Tianshan, Datang Youxia Zhuan, Baifa Monü Zhuan, Saiwai Qixia Zhuan, Yunhai Yugong Yuan, Xiagu Danxin The pioneer of the "new school" (新派) wuxia genre. Some of his works were adapted into films and television series.
Gu Long (古龍) 1960–1984 Chu Liuxiang Series, Juedai Shuangjiao, Xiao Shiyi Lang, Xiaoli Feidao Series, Lu Xiaofeng Series A writer who blends elements of mystery in his works. He writes in short paragraphs and is influenced stylistically by Western and Japanese writers. Some of his works were adapted into films and television series.
Wen Ruian (溫瑞安) Sida Mingbu, Buyi Shenxiang, Jingyan Yiqiang His works were adapted into the television series The Four and Face to Fate.
Huang Yi (黃易) Xunqin Ji, Fuyu Fanyun, Datang Shuanglong Zhuan Combines wuxia with science fiction in his works. His works were adapted into the television series A Step into the Past, Lethal Weapons of Love and Passion and Twin of Brothers.

Comics

Although new and original wuxia writings have dwindled significantly in the last 25 years, particularly so as patronage and readerships of the genre decimated due to the readily available alternatives in entertainment like DVDs, affordable gaming-consoles and so forth, the genre has proliferated in manhua (Chinese comics) in places like Hong Kong and Taiwan, with the core essentials of the wuxia living on in weekly editions equivalent to the Japanese manga.

Some notable comic artists are listed as follows:

Name Some works
Ma Wing-shing (馬榮成) Fung Wan, Chinese Hero, Black Leopard
Wong Yuk-long (黃玉郎) Oriental Heroes, Weapons of the Gods, Xiaoliumang, Rulai Shenzhang
Khoo Fuk-lung (邱福龍) Saint, Dragonman

Films

See also: Category:Wuxia films

The earliest wuxia films date back to the 1920s. Films produced by King Hu and the Shaw Brothers Studio featured sophisticated action choreography using wire and trampoline assisted acrobatics combined with sped-up camera techniques. The storylines in the early films were loosely adapted from existing literature.

Cheng Pei-pei and Jimmy Wang were two of the biggest stars in the days of Shaw Brothers Studio and King Hu. Cantonese screen idol Connie Chan grew up starring in wuxia films and was famous for her male roles. Jet Li is a more recent star of wuxia films, having appeared in Swordsman II and Hero. Yuen Woo-ping is a choreographer who achieved fame by crafting stunning action-sequences in films of the genre. Mainland Chinese director Zhang Yimou's foray into wuxia films was distinguished by the imaginative use of vivid colours and breathtaking background settings.

Wuxia was introduced to the Hollywood studios in 2000 by Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. Following Ang Lee's footsteps, Zhang Yimou made Hero, targeted for the international market in 2003, and House of Flying Daggers in 2004. American audiences are also being introduced to wuxia through Asian television stations in larger cities, which feature well-produced miniseries such as Warriors of the Yang Clan and Paradise, often with English subtitles. With complex, almost soap-opera storylines, lavish sets and costumes, and veteran actors in pivotal roles, these tales can appeal to a variety of audiences.

Western attempts at the genre have been limited. However, a major exception is DreamWorks Animation's media franchise Kung Fu Panda. Created as an earnest, if humorous, emulation by producers who were knowledgeable admirers of the genre, the series has been particularly hailed in China as an excellent contribution to the form.[17][18]

Video games

See also

References

  1. ^ "侠以武犯禁，而人主兼礼之，此所以乱也。夫离法者罪，而诸先生，以文学取；犯禁者诛，而群侠以私剑养。"《韩非子·五蠹》.
  2. ^ 「聶隱娘最大的特色，就是擁有許多神妙離奇的法術....這個特色，在後來的武俠小說中，有非常深遠的影響，尤其是民國初年，像平江不肖生《江湖奇俠傳》、還珠樓主《蜀山劍俠傳》的神怪武俠系列，可以說都是導源於唐人傳奇的。」http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/culture/chinese/cul_kungfu/c/2-1-21.htm
  3. ^ See Chpater 8 in Trivial Matters, Northern Dreams《北夢瑣言》 editor Sun Guangxian (孫光憲)
  4. ^ See 《甘泽谣》editor 袁郊
  5. ^ 「《虬髯客传》一文虎虎有生气，或者可以说是我国武侠小说的鼻祖。」金庸,《卅三剑客图》
  6. ^ 「唐代著名的武侠小说有《红线传》、《虬髯客传》、《刘无双传》、《昆仑奴传》、《聂隐娘传》，等等（空空儿、精精儿则是附在《聂隐娘传》中）。」梁羽生：“风尘三侠”, 一九六五年五月
  7. ^ Teo, Stephen (2009). Chinese Martial Arts Cinema: The Wuxia Tradition. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-7486-3286-2.
  8. ^ Hamm, John Christopher (2006). Paper Swordsmen: Jin Yong and the Modern Chinese Martial Arts Novel. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 11, 262. ISBN 0-8248-2895-X.
  9. ^ A selective guide to Chinese literature: 1900–1949. The novel, Volume 1. 1988, E.J. Brill, Leiden, ed. Milena Doleželová-Velingerová, p 176–7. Biography by John Ma
  10. ^ Liu, James J.Y. The Chinese Knight Errant. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976, pp 135–6.
  11. ^ 《平江不肖生的传奇生涯》, 徐亚平, 2010年11月9日《湖南日报》http://www.confucianism.com.cn/html/wenxue/13753100.html
  12. ^ http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/culture/chinese/cul_kungfu/c/2-2-12.htm
  13. ^ http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/culture/chinese/cul_kungfu/c/2-2.htm.
  14. ^ http://www.wuxia.net.cn/article/261.html
  15. ^ 台湾“女金庸”坐月子写巨著, 世界新闻报 World News Journal, 2007-08-29. http://gb.cri.cn/12764/2007/08/29/2905@1737819.htm
  16. ^ a b McNeil, Simon. The Anatomy of a Wuxia Novel. Kungfu Magazine, 4 February 2010.
  17. ^ "Kung Fu Panda reaches Chinese box office milestone". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
  18. ^ Lee, Min (3 July 2008). "Kung Fu Panda reaches Chinese box office milestone". USA Today. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
  19. ^ Official site of Heroes of Kung Fu
  20. ^ Official Age of Wulin Website

Further reading

  • Liu, James J.Y. The Chinese Knight Errant. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967 (ISBN 0-226-48688-5)
  • Hamm, John Christopher. Paper Swordsmen: Jin Yong and the modern Chinese martial arts novel. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-8248-2763-5)
  • (Chinese) 汪涌豪 《中国游侠史》 上海：上海文化出版社，1994 [Wang, Yonghao: "History of Chinese Knight-errantry". Shanghai: Shanghai Wenhua Chubanshe, 1994]

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