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Nuclear energy policy is a national and international policy concerning some or all aspects of nuclear energy, such as mining for nuclear fuel, extraction and processing of nuclear fuel from the ore, generating electricity by nuclear power, enriching and storing spent nuclear fuel and nuclear fuel reprocessing.

Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to the nuclear fuel cycle. Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations, emission standards, fiscal policies, and legislation on energy trading, transport of nuclear waste and contaminated materials, and their storage. Governments might subsidize nuclear energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of nuclear technology, electricity, nuclear waste, and uranium.

Since nuclear energy and nuclear weapons technologies are closely related, military aspirations can act as a factor in energy policy decisions. The fear of nuclear proliferation influences some international nuclear energy policies.

The global picture

Installed nuclear capacity rose relatively quickly since the 1950s, but since the late 1980s capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005, primarily due to Chinese expansion of nuclear power. Between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the late 70s and early 80s).

The growth slowed in the 1980s because of environmentalist opposition, high interest rates, and energy conservation prompted by the oil shock in 1973, the energy crisis in 1979 and the Three Mile Island accident and Chernobyl disaster. In 1983 an unexpected fall in fossil fuel prices stopped most new construction of nuclear power plants. Electricity liberalization in the United States and Europe during the 1980s and 1990s increased the financial risk of investing in nuclear power. More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled.^[1]

Nuclear power plants, however, do not directly generate any greenhouse gases, some governments have therefore returned to nuclear power as part of their strategies on tackling global warming and climate change.

In 1999 the countries that relied most on nuclear energy were France (with 75 % of its electricity generated by nuclear power stations), Lithuania (73 %), Belgium (58 %), Bulgaria, Slovakia and Sweden (47 %), Ukraine (44 %) and South Korea (43 %). The largest producer of nuclear capacity was the USA with 28 % of worldwide capacity, followed by France (18 %) and Japan (12 %).^[2] In 2000, there were 438 commercial nuclear generating units throughout the world, with a total capacity of about 351 gigawatts.

According to IAEA, nuclear power is projected to increase to 17% share of the world's electricity production by 2020. They predict 60 new plants will be installed over the next 15 years.^[3]

Policy options

File:Lula nuclear.jpg

Brasilia, Brazil , March, 15, 2005 — Greenpeace balloon in Brasilia and Lula Nuclear. Greenpeace protesting against Brazilian Nuclear Program. Photo:J. Freitas/Abr.

After a period of decline in the use of nuclear technology following the 1979 Three Mile Island accident and the 1986 incident at Chernobyl, there has more lately been renewed interest in nuclear energy. Some policymakers have returned to the 'nuclear option' because they see it as potentially able to address dwindling global oil reserves and global warming with less greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuel.

For some countries, nuclear power affords energy independence. In the words of the French, "We have no coal, we have no oil, we have no gas, we have no choice." Nuclear power has been relatively unaffected by embargoes, and uranium is mined in reliable countries, including Australia and Canada.^[4]^[5] Nuclear power also has a high energy return on energy investment. Using life cycle analysis, it takes 4 to 5 months of energy production from the nuclear plant to fully pay back the initial energy investment.^[6]

But policymakers must also balance their decisions so that the concerns surrounding nuclear power are addressed. These include the problem of storing radioactive waste for indefinite periods, the potential for severe radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, and the possibility that its use could in some countries lead to the proliferation of nuclear weapons.

Proponents, including some national governments, claim that these risks are small and can be lessened with new technology. They note that France and all of the industrialised economies of Asia see nuclear power as a key economic strategy, that the safety record is already good when compared to other energy forms, that it releases much less pollution than coal power, and that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source.

Opponents, including some national governments and many environmental groups, claim nuclear power is an uneconomic, unsound and potentially dangerous energy source and dispute whether the costs and risks can be reduced through new technology. They note that Germany and Australia are commercializing renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies (see Renewable energy in Germany and Renewable energy commercialization in Australia).

Others claim that nuclear power is a renewable source of energy (see Renewable energy).

Policies by country

Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, Finland, India, Iran, Lithuania, North Korea, Romania, Russia, Pakistan, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Ukraine, and the U.S. are currently planning or building new nuclear reactors or reopening old ones. Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Egypt, France, Indonesia, Israel, Slovakia, South Africa, Turkey, and Vietnam are considering doing this. Armenia, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Mexico, Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and United Kingdom have nuclear reactors but currently no advanced proposals for expansion.^[7]^[8]^[9] Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland and Norway have no nuclear plants and have restricted new plant constructions. Poland stopped the construction of a plant. Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Spain and Sweden decided not to build new plants or intend to phase out nuclear power, although still mostly relying on nuclear energy.

Africa

South Africa is the only country in Africa with nuclear power plants and it currently has an expansion policy based upon the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR), with plans to export to China.^{[citation needed]} Several groups, including Earthlife Africa and Koeberg Alert, oppose these measures.^{[citation needed]}

Asia

China has 10 reactors operating, 5 reactors under construction, and is planning or proposing an additional 25.^[8]^[10]

India has 16 reactors operating, 8 reactors under construction, and is planning an additional 24.^[8]^[11]

Japan has 55 reactors operating and 3 reactors under construction.^[10]

Kazakhstan shut down its only NPP in 1999. In 2003, the Minister of Energy and Mines announced plans for the construction of a new NPP within the next 15 years. The two–three unit NPP is to be established on the shores of Lake Balkhash in the Karaganda region of central Kazakhstan.^[2]

North Korea had two PWRs at Kumho under construction until construction was suspended in November 2003. On September 19, 2005 North Korea pledged to stop building nuclear weapons and agreed to international inspections in return for energy aid. The agreement hinted that this aid might in future include one or more light water reactors.^{[citation needed]}

South Korea has 18 operational nuclear power reactors, with two more under construction and scheduled to go online by 2004.^{[citation needed]}

Pakistan operates two reactors, is building a third, and is considering two more.^{[citation needed]}

In the Philippines, in 2004, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo outlined her energy policy. It included plans to convert the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant, one of their two reactors, into a gas powered facility.^{[citation needed]}

Taiwan has three operational reactors, but support for nuclear energy is strongly split between the KMT and the Democratic Progressive Party. As long as the DPP is in power, no new reactors will be built.^{[citation needed]}

In July 2000, the Turkish government decided not to build the controversial nuclear plant in Akkuyu.^{[citation needed]}

Oceania

Australia has up to 40% of the world's uranium deposits and is the world's second largest producer of uranium after Canada.^[2] At the same time Australia's extensive, low-cost coal and natural gas reserves have historically been used as strong arguments for avoiding nuclear power. But more recently a number of prominent politicians have begun to advocate for its serious consideration as a means to affordably reduce greenhouse emissions and allow for large-scale de-salination plants.^{[citation needed]}

In 2005, the Australian government threatened to use its constitutional powers to take control of the approval process for new mines from the anti-nuclear Northern Territory government. They are also negotiating with China to weaken safeguard terms so as to allow uranium exports there.^{[citation needed]} States controlled by the Australian Labor Party are blocking the development of new mines in their jurisdictions under the ALP's "No New Mines policy." The Uranium Mining, Processing and Nuclear Energy Review (UMPNER), an inquiry run by the department of the Prime Minister in Cabinet, is expected to pave the way for nuclear power in Australia, providing the government is returned to power after the election later this year.^[12]

New Zealand enacted the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act of 1987 which prohibits the stationing of nuclear weapons on the territory of New Zealand and the entry into New Zealand waters of nuclear armed or propelled ships. This Act of Parliament, however, does not prevent the construction of nuclear power plants.^{[citation needed]}

Europe

A nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at Zwentendorf, Austria, but its start-up was prevented by a popular vote in 1978. On July 9, 1997, the Austrian Parliament voted unanimously to maintain the country's anti-nuclear policy.^[13]

In 1999 Belgium's Government, then a coalition which included the Green party Groen!, passed legislation which stipulated that no new reactors would be built and that Belgium's seven reactors would close after a further 40 years of operation.^[14] When the law was being passed, there was speculation it would be overturned again as soon as an administration without Groen! was in power.^[15] A report published in 2005 by the National Planning Bureau noted that in many parts of Belgium nuclear power makes up more than 50% of the electricity generated. It would therefore be difficult for Belgium to adhere to the emissions targets of the Kyoto Protocols without nuclear power.^[16]

Bulgaria operated 6 reactors, but four of them were deactivated in 2002 as a condition of joining the European Union. They are being replaced with 2 reactors of a more modern and powerful design.^{[citation needed]}

Finland's program has four nuclear reactors, which provides 27% of the country's electricity. Two VVER-440 pressurized water reactors built by Soviet Atomenergoeksport and commissioned in 1977 and 1980, locate in Loviisa. They are operated by Fortum Oyj. Two boiling water reactors built by Swedish Asea-Atom (nowadays Westinghouse Electric Company) and commissioned n 1978 and 1980, locate in Olkiluoto plant in Eurajoki, near Rauma. They are owned and operated by Teollisuuden Voima, a subsidiary of Pohjolan Voima Oy. In 2002, the cabinet's decision to allow the construction of fifth reactor (third in Olkiluoto) was accepted in the parliament. Economic, energy security and environmental grounds were given as reasons for the decision.^{[citation needed]} The reactor will be the new European Pressurized Reactor, built by French company Areva, which is scheduled to go on line in 2011. Energy companies have proposed also construction of sixth and seventh reactors, although no decision made yet.^[17]^[18]

After the oil crisis of the early 1970s, the French government decided in 1974 to move towards self-sufficiency in electricity production, primarily through the construction of nuclear power stations. France today produces around 75% of its electricity through nuclear power.^[19] Because France produces an overall electricity surplus, it exports nuclear-produced energy. Some of this goes to countries which are ostensibly against the use of nuclear energy, such as Germany.^{[citation needed]} The Board of Electricité de France (EDF) has approved construction of a 1630 MWe EPR at Flamanville, Normandy. Construction is expected to begin in late 2007, with completion in 2012.^[20]

In 2000, the German government, consisting of a coalition including the Green party Alliance -90 officially announced its intention to phase out nuclear power in Germany. Jürgen Trittin, the Minister of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, reached an agreement with energy companies on the gradual shut down of the country's nineteen nuclear power plants and a cessation of civil usage of nuclear power by 2020. Legislation was enacted in the Nuclear Exit Law. The power plants in Stade and Obrigheim were turned off on November 14, 2003, and May 11, 2005, respectively. Dismantling of the plants is scheduled to begin in 2007.^[21] But the Nuclear Exit Law did not ban enrichment stations - one in Gronau has received permission to extend operations. There have been concerns over the safety of the phase-out, particularly in terms of the transport of nuclear waste.^[22] In 2005 Angela Merkel won the German federal election with the CDU party. She has subsequently announced to re-negotiate with energy companies the time limit for a shut down of nuclear power stations. But as part of her pact with the SDP, with whom the CDU form a coalition, the phase-out policy has for now been retained.^[23]^[24]

In Ireland, a nuclear power plant was first proposed in 1968. It was to be built during the 1970s at Carnsore Point in County Wexford. The plan envisioned four plants to be built at the site, but was dropped after strong opposition from environmental groups, and Ireland has remained without nuclear power since.^{[citation needed]} Despite opposing nuclear power and nuclear fuel reprocessing at Sellafield, Ireland is due to open an interconnector to the mainland UK to buy electricity, which is, in some part, the product of nuclear power.

Italy held a referendum the year after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, deciding to shut down Italy's four nuclear power plants. The last was closed in 1990.^[25] A moratorium on the construction of new plants, originally in effect from 1987 until 1993, has since been extended indefinitely.^[26] But Premier Silvio Berlusconi reopened the nuclear power debate in 2005, noting Italy imports around 85% of its total energy, above the European average.^[27] In October 2005, the Environment Minister Altero Matteoli announced interest in switching the country's main source of energy to nuclear power within 10-15 years.^{[citation needed]} As of 2006, Italy was an importer of nuclear-generated electricity, and its largest electricity utility Enel SPA was investing both in reactors in France and Slovakia to provide this electricity in the future, and also in the development of the EPR technology.^{[citation needed]}

In 2006, Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian power companies carried out the feasibility study for construction of the new nuclear power plant in Lithuania to replace existing Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant, scheduled to be shut down in 2009. The study shows that the nuclear power plant project is feasible.^[28]

In 1994, the Netherland's parliament voted to phase out nuclear power after a discussion of nuclear waste management. In 1997 the power station at Dodewaard was shut down and the government decided it was planning to end Borssele's operating license in 2003. But in 2003, with a new government in power, the shut down was postponed to 2013.^[29] In 2006 the government decided that Borssele will remain open until 2033, if it can comply with the highest safety standards. The owners, Essent and Delta will invest 500 million euro in sustainable energy, together with the government - money which the government claims otherwise should have been paid to the plants owners as compensation.^{[citation needed]}

Russia operates 31 reactors, is building 3, and has plans for another 27.^{[citation needed]}

The Slovenian nuclear plant in Krško (co-owned with Croatia) is scheduled to be closed by 2023, and there are no plans to build further nuclear plants. But the debate on whether and when to close the Krško plant intensified after the 2005/06 winter energy crisis. In May 2006 a Slovenian newspaper claimed the government had held internal discussions on adding a new 1000MW block into Krško after 2020.^{[citation needed]}

In Spain a moratorium was enacted by the socialist government in 1983 and plans for a phase-out are being discussed anew.^[30]^[31]

Following the Three Mile Island accident in the United States in 1979, the Swedish Government decided, after a referendum, that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. But in 1998, when electricity from hydropower accounted for 48% of the country's production of electricity, the government decided to build no further hydropower plants in order to protect its national water resources. This is likely to set back the planned phase-out of Sweden's nuclear reactors, perhaps until 2045.^{[citation needed]} Indeed the current Swedish government is proposing to end the nuclear phase-out, while still maintaining a moratorium on new construction at least until 2010.^{[citation needed]}

There have been several referenda on nuclear energy in Switzerland. In 1990, the people passed a motion to halt the construction of nuclear power plants (for a moratorium period of ten years) but rejected a motion to initiate a phase-out.^{[citation needed]} In 2003 a motion calling for an extension to this moratorium (for another ten years) and another asking again on the question of a phase-out, were both rejected.^{[citation needed]} Around 40% of Switzerland's electricity is generated by nuclear power.^{[citation needed]}

The future of nuclear power in the United Kingdom is currently under review. The country has a number of reactors which are currently reaching the end of their working life, and it is currently undecided how they will be replaced. The UK is also failing to reach its targets for reduction on CO₂ emissions, a situation which may be worsened if new nuclear power stations are not built.^{[citation needed]} The UK also uses a large proportion of gas fired power stations, which produce relatively low (compared to coal) CO₂ emissions, but there have been recent difficulties in obtaining adequate gas supplies. The UK government has just appointed a new pro-nuclear energy minister.^{[citation needed]}

North America

Canada operates 18 reactors accounting for about 15% of electrical generation, mostly in the province of Ontario. Increasing demands for electricity and Kyoto Agreement obligations have lead Ontario to announce that it will maintain existing nuclear capacity by replacing older reactors with new ones [3].

In 2004, there were 104 (69 pressurized water reactors, 35 boiling water reactors) commercial nuclear generating units licensed to operate in the United States, producing approximately 20 % of the country's energy needs. In absolute terms, the United States is the world's largest supplier of commercial nuclear power. Future development of nuclear power in the U.S. was enabled by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 ^[32] and is co-ordinated by the Nuclear Power 2010 Program ^[33]. On September 22, 2005 it was announced that two sites had been selected to receive new power reactors.

South America

In Brazil, nuclear energy, produced by two reactors at Angra, accounts for about 4% of the country's electricity ^[34]. Brazil plans to build seven more reactors by 2025.^[35].

In Argentina, about 6% of the electricity comes from 2 operational reactors: The Embalse Río Tercero plant, a CANDU6 reactor, and the Atucha 1 plant, a PHWR German design. In 2001, the plant was modified to burn Slightly Enriched Uranium, making it the first PHWR reactor to burn that fuel worldwide. Atucha originally was planned to be a complex with various reactors. Atucha 2 (similar to Aucha 1 but more powerful) is actually more than half-built, however it never entered into operation. Argentina also has some other research reactors, and exports nuclear technology.

References

^ "50 Years of Nuclear Energy" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c "Survey of energy resources" (PDF). World Energy Council. 2004. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2030" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. July 2004. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Nuclear renaissance faces realities". Platts. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ L. Meeus, K. Purchala, R. Belmans. "Is it reliable to depend on import?" (PDF). Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Departement of Electrical Engineering of the Faculty of Engineering. Retrieved 2007-07-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "Energy Analysis of Power Systems". World Nuclear Association. March 2006. Retrieved 2006-05-19.
^ "Plans For New Reactors Worldwide". World Nuclear Association. May 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ ^a ^b ^c "World Nuclear Power Reactors 2006-07 and Uranium Requirements". World Nuclear Association. 2007-05-31. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "Let a Thousand Reactors Bloom". WIRED magazine. 2004-09-12. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ ^a ^b "Plans For New Reactors Worldwide - Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 19". April 2005. Retrieved 2006-05-19.
^ M. Somasekhar (2005-07-28). "India-US pact: Energising India's nuclear programme". The Hindu Business Line. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ Kathy Newnam (2005-08-11). "Uranium mining - dollars for death". Green Left Online. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Coalition of Nuclear-Free Countries". WISE News Communique. September 26, 1997. Retrieved 2006-05-19.
^ "Status of nuclear in current member states. Belgium". World Information Service on Energy. 2003-11-14. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ Ruffles, Philip (July 2003). "An Essential Programme to Underpin Government Policy on Nuclear Power" (PDF). Nuclear Task Force. Retrieved 2006-05-19. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ "Addicted to nuclear energy?". Expatica. 2005-07-14. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "Finnish energy groups interested in building sixth nuclear reactor". Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "E.ON Finland to buy plot for new nuclear reactor". AFX News. 2007-04-17. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "Nuclear Power in France. Briefing Paper 28". Uranium Information Centre. June 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "Significant nuclear-related news items in perspective". Uranium Information Centre weekly digest. 2006. ISSN 1326-4907. Retrieved 2006-05-19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ "German nuclear energy phase-out begins with first plant closure". Terra Daily. 2003-11-14. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ Wolfgang Renneberg (2001-05-24). [hhttp://www.bmu.de/english/nuclear_safety/doc/3420.php "Nuclear phase-out in Germany and the Challenges for Nuclear Regulation. Address"]. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "German Parties Set to Clash Over Nuclear Power". Deutsche Welle. 2005-10-30. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ Geir Moulson (2005-11-14). "Top parties approve pact that will make Merkel Germany's first woman chancellor". CBC News. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ Fatih Birol (1999). "Nuclear Power in the World Energy Outlook". World Nuclear Association. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "Energy R&D in Italy" (PDF). The Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. December 1999. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "Berlusconi reopens nuclear debate in Italy". Ireland Online. 2005-01-21. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "Nuclear Power Plant Project in Lithuania is Feasible. Press release". Lietuvos Energija. 2006-10-25. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "No Nukes Inforesource. The Netherlands". sterreichisches Ökologie Institut. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
^ "Spain halts nuclear power". WISE News Communique. May 24, 1991. Retrieved 2006-05-19.
^ "Nuclear Power in Spain". World Nuclear Association. May 2006. Retrieved 2006-05-19.
^ [1], pdf
^ [2]
^ http://www.uic.com.au/nip95.htm
^ http://www.mercopress.com/Detalle.asp?NUM=9036

External links

Nuclear Energy Institute: U.S. Industry Trade Group
World Nuclear Association: International Membership Organization for the Industry
WISE/NIRS Nuclear Monitor: Status of nuclear in EU member states
Research paper detailing perspectives for energy politics in the UK (pdf)
Greenpeace: Referenda and nuclear power plants
Survey of Energy Resources: Nuclear
Energy Research and Development - Global trends in policy and investment
How can new nuclear power plants be financed?, Nuclear Engineering International, 1 September 2005
Uranium Information Center: Outline history of nuclear energy
An Essential Programme to Underpin Government Policy on Nuclear Power. By the "Nuclear Task Force." July 2003 (pdf)
[4] About the nuclear power phase-out in Sweden German)
Robert J. Duffy. Nuclear Politics in America: A History and Theory of Government Regulation (Studies in Government and Public Policy). Paperback. 1997. ISBN 0-7006-0853-2.
La France Nucleaire Nuclear France: Materials and Sites (online book in English and French)
An Essential Programme to Underpin Government Policy on Nuclear Power. By the "Nuclear Task Force." July 2003 (pdf)
Energie-Fakten About the nuclear power phase-out in Sweden (German)

[iaea-1] "50 Years of Nuclear Energy" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[wec-2] "Survey of energy resources" (PDF). World Energy Council. 2004. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[iaea2-3] "Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2030" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. July 2004. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[platts-4] "Nuclear renaissance faces realities". Platts. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[esat-5] L. Meeus, K. Purchala, R. Belmans. "Is it reliable to depend on import?" (PDF). Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Departement of Electrical Engineering of the Faculty of Engineering. Retrieved 2007-07-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[inf11-6] "Energy Analysis of Power Systems". World Nuclear Association. March 2006. Retrieved 2006-05-19.

[inf17-7] "Plans For New Reactors Worldwide". World Nuclear Association. May 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[reactors-8] "World Nuclear Power Reactors 2006-07 and Uranium Requirements". World Nuclear Association. 2007-05-31. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[wired-9] "Let a Thousand Reactors Bloom". WIRED magazine. 2004-09-12. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[nip19-10] "Plans For New Reactors Worldwide - Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 19". April 2005. Retrieved 2006-05-19.

[thehindubusinessline-11] M. Somasekhar (2005-07-28). "India-US pact: Energising India's nuclear programme". The Hindu Business Line. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[greenleft-12] Kathy Newnam (2005-08-11). "Uranium mining - dollars for death". Green Left Online. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[13] "Coalition of Nuclear-Free Countries". WISE News Communique. September 26, 1997. Retrieved 2006-05-19.

[wise3-14] "Status of nuclear in current member states. Belgium". World Information Service on Energy. 2003-11-14. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[essential_programme-15] Ruffles, Philip (July 2003). "An Essential Programme to Underpin Government Policy on Nuclear Power" (PDF). Nuclear Task Force. Retrieved 2006-05-19. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[expatica-16] "Addicted to nuclear energy?". Expatica. 2005-07-14. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[m&c-17] "Finnish energy groups interested in building sixth nuclear reactor". Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[afx-18] "E.ON Finland to buy plot for new nuclear reactor". AFX News. 2007-04-17. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[uic28-19] "Nuclear Power in France. Briefing Paper 28". Uranium Information Centre. June 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[uic512-20] "Significant nuclear-related news items in perspective". Uranium Information Centre weekly digest. 2006. ISSN 1326-4907. Retrieved 2006-05-19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[terra-21] "German nuclear energy phase-out begins with first plant closure". Terra Daily. 2003-11-14. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[bmu-22] Wolfgang Renneberg (2001-05-24). [hhttp://www.bmu.de/english/nuclear_safety/doc/3420.php "Nuclear phase-out in Germany and the Challenges for Nuclear Regulation. Address"]. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[dw-23] "German Parties Set to Clash Over Nuclear Power". Deutsche Welle. 2005-10-30. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[cbc-24] Geir Moulson (2005-11-14). "Top parties approve pact that will make Merkel Germany's first woman chancellor". CBC News. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[birol-25] Fatih Birol (1999). "Nuclear Power in the World Energy Outlook". World Nuclear Association. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[pnl-26] "Energy R&D in Italy" (PDF). The Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. December 1999. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[iol-27] "Berlusconi reopens nuclear debate in Italy". Ireland Online. 2005-01-21. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[le-28] "Nuclear Power Plant Project in Lithuania is Feasible. Press release". Lietuvos Energija. 2006-10-25. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[nni-29] "No Nukes Inforesource. The Netherlands". sterreichisches Ökologie Institut. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[30] "Spain halts nuclear power". WISE News Communique. May 24, 1991. Retrieved 2006-05-19.

[inf85-31] "Nuclear Power in Spain". World Nuclear Association. May 2006. Retrieved 2006-05-19.

[32] [1], pdf

[33] [2]

[34] ttp://www.uic.com.au/nip95.htm

[35] ttp://www.mercopress.com/Detalle.asp?NUM=9036

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@@ Line 74: / Line 74: @@
 ===Europe===
-In [[Spain]] a [[moratorium]] was enacted by the socialist government in 1983 and plans for a phase-out are being discussed anew.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/353/3502.html| publisher=WISE News Communique| year=May 24, 1991| title=Spain halts nuclear power| accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref><ref name="inf85">{{cite web| url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf85.htm| title=Nuclear Power in Spain| year=May 2006| publisher=World Nuclear Association| accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref>
+A nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at [[Zwentendorf]], [[Austria]], but its start-up was prevented by a popular vote in 1978. On [[July 9]], [[1997]], the [[Parliament of Austria|Austrian Parliament]] voted unanimously to maintain the country's anti-nuclear policy.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/478/aai.html| publisher=WISE News Communique| year=September 26, 1997| title=Coalition of Nuclear-Free Countries| accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref>
-In [[Ireland]], a nuclear power plant was first proposed in 1968. It was to be built during the 1970s at [[Carnsore Point]] in [[County Wexford]]. The plan envisioned four plants to be built at the site, but was dropped after strong opposition from environmental groups, and Ireland has remained without nuclear power since.{{fact}} Despite opposing nuclear power and nuclear fuel reprocessing at [[Sellafield]], Ireland is due to open an interconnector to the mainland UK to buy electricity, which is, in some part, the product of nuclear power.
-The [[Slovenia]]n [[Krško Nuclear Power Plant|nuclear plant in Krško]] (co-owned with [[Croatia]]) is scheduled to be closed by 2023, and there are no plans to build further nuclear plants. But the debate on whether and when to close the Krško plant intensified after the [[Russia-Ukraine gas dispute#Cutting off the supply|2005/06 winter energy crisis]]. In May 2006 a Slovenian newspaper claimed the government had held internal discussions on adding a new 1000MW block into Krško after 2020.{{fact}}
 In 1999 [[Belgian federal government|Belgium's Government]], then a coalition which included the [[Green party]] [[Groen!]], passed legislation which stipulated that no new reactors would be built and that [[List of nuclear reactors#Belgium|Belgium's seven reactors]] would close after a further 40 years of operation.<ref name="wise3">{{cite web| url=http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/596-8/h3.php| title=Status of nuclear in current member states. Belgium| date=2003-11-14| publisher=World Information Service on Energy| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> When the law was being passed, there was speculation it would be overturned again as soon as an administration without Groen! was in power.<ref name="essential programme">{{cite web| url=http://www.scientific-alliance.org/pdf/essential_programme_to_underpin_government_policy_on_nuclear_power.pdf| title=An Essential Programme to Underpin Government Policy on Nuclear Power| year=July 2003| publisher=Nuclear Task Force| first=Philip| last=Ruffles| coauthors=Michael Burdekin, Charles Curtis, Brian Eyre, Geoff Hewitt,  William Wilkinson| format=PDF| accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref> A report published in 2005 by the National Planning Bureau noted that in many parts of Belgium nuclear power makes up more than 50% of the electricity generated. It would therefore be difficult for Belgium to adhere to the emissions targets of the [[Kyoto Protocols]] without nuclear power.<ref name="expatica">{{cite web| url=http://www.expatica.com/source/site_article.asp?subchannel_id=48&story_id=21976&name=Addicted+to+nuclear+energy%3F| title=Addicted to nuclear energy?| date=2005-07-14| publisher=Expatica| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>
+{{mainarticle|Nuclear power in Bulgaria}}
+Bulgaria operated 6 reactors, but four of them were deactivated in 2002 as a condition of joining the [[European Union]].  They are being replaced with 2 reactors of a more modern and powerful design.{{fact}}
 {{mainarticle|Nuclear power in Finland}}
@@ Line 90: / Line 89: @@
 {{mainarticle|Nuclear power in Germany}}
 In 2000, the [[Germany|German]] government, consisting of a coalition including the Green party [[Alliance '90/The Greens|Alliance -90]] officially announced its intention to phase out [[nuclear power in Germany]]. [[Jürgen Trittin]], the Minister of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, reached an agreement with energy companies on the gradual shut down of [[List of nuclear reactors#Germany|the country's nineteen nuclear power plants]] and a cessation of civil usage of nuclear power by 2020. Legislation was enacted in the [[Nuclear Exit Law]]. The power plants in [[Stade]] and Obrigheim were turned off on [[November 14]], [[2003]], and [[May 11]], [[2005]], respectively. Dismantling of the plants is scheduled to begin in 2007.<ref name="terra">{{cite web| url = http://www.terradaily.com/2003/031114130333.jlvf6wjx.html | title = German nuclear energy phase-out begins with first plant closure | date=2003-11-14 | publisher = Terra Daily | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> But the Nuclear Exit Law did not ban enrichment stations - one in Gronau has received permission to extend operations. There have been concerns over the safety of the phase-out, particularly in terms of the transport of nuclear waste.<ref name="bmu">{{cite web| url = hhttp://www.bmu.de/english/nuclear_safety/doc/3420.php | title = Nuclear phase-out in Germany and the Challenges for Nuclear Regulation. Address | author=Wolfgang Renneberg | date=2001-05-24 | publisher = Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> In 2005 [[Angela Merkel]] won the [[German federal election, 2005|German federal election]] with the CDU party. She has subsequently announced to re-negotiate with energy companies the time limit for a shut down of nuclear power stations. But as part of her pact with the SDP, with whom the CDU form a coalition, the phase-out policy has for now been retained.<ref name="dw">{{cite web| url = http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1760476,00.html | title = German Parties Set to Clash Over Nuclear Power | date=2005-10-30 | publisher = Deutsche Welle | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref><ref name="cbc">{{cite web| url = http://www.cbc.ca/cp/world/051114/w111436.html | author=Geir Moulson | title = Top parties approve pact that will make Merkel Germany's first woman chancellor | date=2005-11-14 | publisher = CBC News | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>
+In [[Ireland]], a nuclear power plant was first proposed in 1968. It was to be built during the 1970s at [[Carnsore Point]] in [[County Wexford]]. The plan envisioned four plants to be built at the site, but was dropped after strong opposition from environmental groups, and Ireland has remained without nuclear power since.{{fact}} Despite opposing nuclear power and nuclear fuel reprocessing at [[Sellafield]], Ireland is due to open an interconnector to the mainland UK to buy electricity, which is, in some part, the product of nuclear power.
+[[Italy]] held a referendum the year after the 1986 [[Chernobyl disaster]], deciding to shut down Italy's four nuclear power plants. The last was closed in 1990.<ref name="birol">{{cite web| url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/sym/1999/birol.htm | author=Fatih Birol| title=Nuclear Power in the World Energy Outlook| year=1999 | publisher=World Nuclear Association| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> A moratorium on the construction of new plants, originally in effect from 1987 until 1993, has since been extended indefinitely.<ref name="pnl">{{cite web| url=http://www.pnl.gov/aisu/pubs/enrditaly.PDF | format=PDF | title=Energy R&D in Italy | year=December 1999 | publisher=The Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> But Premier [[Silvio Berlusconi]] reopened the nuclear power debate in 2005, noting Italy imports around 85% of its total energy, above the European average.<ref name="iol">{{cite web| url=http://breakingnews.iol.ie/news/?c=ireland&jp=kfidojqlauau | title=Berlusconi reopens nuclear debate in Italy | date=2005-01-21 | publisher=Ireland Online | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> In October 2005, the Environment Minister [[Altero Matteoli]] announced interest in switching the country's main source of energy to [[nuclear power]] within 10-15 years.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[As of 2006]], Italy was an importer of nuclear-generated electricity, and its largest electricity utility [[Enel SPA]] was investing both in reactors in France and Slovakia to provide this electricity in the future, and also in the development of the [[European Pressurized Reactor|EPR]] technology.{{fact}}
 In 2006, [[Lithuania]]n, [[Latvia]]n and [[Estonia]]n power companies carried out the feasibility study for construction of the new nuclear power plant in Lithuania to replace existing [[Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant]], scheduled to be shut down in 2009. The study shows that the nuclear power plant project is feasible.<ref name="le">{{cite web| url = http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469 | title = Nuclear Power Plant Project in Lithuania is Feasible. Press release | date=2006-10-25 | publisher = Lietuvos Energija | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>
+In 1994, the [[Estates-General of the Netherlands|Netherland's parliament]] voted to phase out nuclear power after a discussion of nuclear waste management. In 1997 the power station at [[Neder-Betuwe|Dodewaard]] was shut down and the government decided it was planning to end [[Borsele|Borssele's]] operating license in 2003. But in 2003, with a [[Second Balkenende cabinet|new government]] in power, the shut down was postponed to 2013.<ref name="nni">{{cite web| url=http://www.ecology.at/nni/country.php?country=Netherlands | title=No Nukes Inforesource. The Netherlands | publisher=sterreichisches Ökologie Institut | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> In 2006 the government decided that Borssele will remain open until 2033, if it can comply with the highest safety standards. The owners, [[Essent]] and [[Delta (Energy Company)|Delta]] will invest 500 million euro in sustainable energy, together with the government - money which the government claims otherwise should have been paid to the plants owners as compensation.{{fact}}
+{{mainarticle|Nuclear power in Russia}}
+Russia operates 31 reactors, is building 3, and has plans for another 27.{{fact}}
+The [[Slovenia]]n [[Krško Nuclear Power Plant|nuclear plant in Krško]] (co-owned with [[Croatia]]) is scheduled to be closed by 2023, and there are no plans to build further nuclear plants. But the debate on whether and when to close the Krško plant intensified after the [[Russia-Ukraine gas dispute#Cutting off the supply|2005/06 winter energy crisis]]. In May 2006 a Slovenian newspaper claimed the government had held internal discussions on adding a new 1000MW block into Krško after 2020.{{fact}}
+In [[Spain]] a [[moratorium]] was enacted by the socialist government in 1983 and plans for a phase-out are being discussed anew.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/353/3502.html| publisher=WISE News Communique| year=May 24, 1991| title=Spain halts nuclear power| accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref><ref name="inf85">{{cite web| url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf85.htm| title=Nuclear Power in Spain| year=May 2006| publisher=World Nuclear Association| accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref>
 {{mainarticle|Nuclear power in Sweden}}
@@ Line 98: / Line 110: @@
 {{mainarticle|Nuclear power in Switzerland}}
 There have been several [[referendum|referenda]] on nuclear energy in [[Switzerland]]. In 1990, the people passed a motion to halt the construction of nuclear power plants (for a [[moratorium]] period of ten years) but rejected a motion to initiate a phase-out.{{fact}} In 2003 a motion calling for an extension to this moratorium (for another ten years) and another asking again on the question of a phase-out, were both rejected.{{fact}} Around 40% of Switzerland's electricity is generated by nuclear power.{{fact}}
-[[Italy]] held a referendum the year after the 1986 [[Chernobyl disaster]], deciding to shut down Italy's four nuclear power plants. The last was closed in 1990.<ref name="birol">{{cite web| url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/sym/1999/birol.htm | author=Fatih Birol| title=Nuclear Power in the World Energy Outlook| year=1999 | publisher=World Nuclear Association| accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> A moratorium on the construction of new plants, originally in effect from 1987 until 1993, has since been extended indefinitely.<ref name="pnl">{{cite web| url=http://www.pnl.gov/aisu/pubs/enrditaly.PDF | format=PDF | title=Energy R&D in Italy | year=December 1999 | publisher=The Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> But Premier [[Silvio Berlusconi]] reopened the nuclear power debate in 2005, noting Italy imports around 85% of its total energy, above the European average.<ref name="iol">{{cite web| url=http://breakingnews.iol.ie/news/?c=ireland&jp=kfidojqlauau | title=Berlusconi reopens nuclear debate in Italy | date=2005-01-21 | publisher=Ireland Online | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> In October 2005, the Environment Minister [[Altero Matteoli]] announced interest in switching the country's main source of energy to [[nuclear power]] within 10-15 years.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[As of 2006]], Italy was an importer of nuclear-generated electricity, and its largest electricity utility [[Enel SPA]] was investing both in reactors in France and Slovakia to provide this electricity in the future, and also in the development of the [[European Pressurized Reactor|EPR]] technology.{{fact}}
-In 1994, the [[Estates-General of the Netherlands|Netherland's parliament]] voted to phase out nuclear power after a discussion of nuclear waste management. In 1997 the power station at [[Neder-Betuwe|Dodewaard]] was shut down and the government decided it was planning to end [[Borsele|Borssele's]] operating license in 2003. But in 2003, with a [[Second Balkenende cabinet|new government]] in power, the shut down was postponed to 2013.<ref name="nni">{{cite web| url=http://www.ecology.at/nni/country.php?country=Netherlands | title=No Nukes Inforesource. The Netherlands | publisher=sterreichisches Ökologie Institut | accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> In 2006 the government decided that Borssele will remain open until 2033, if it can comply with the highest safety standards. The owners, [[Essent]] and [[Delta (Energy Company)|Delta]] will invest 500 million euro in sustainable energy, together with the government - money which the government claims otherwise should have been paid to the plants owners as compensation.{{fact}}
-A nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at [[Zwentendorf]], [[Austria]], but its start-up was prevented by a popular vote in 1978. On [[July 9]], [[1997]], the [[Parliament of Austria|Austrian Parliament]] voted unanimously to maintain the country's anti-nuclear policy.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/478/aai.html| publisher=WISE News Communique| year=September 26, 1997| title=Coalition of Nuclear-Free Countries| accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref>
 {{mainarticle|Nuclear power in the United Kingdom}}
 The future of nuclear power in the United Kingdom is currently under review. The country has a number of reactors which are currently reaching the end of their working life, and it is currently undecided how they will be replaced. The UK is also failing to reach its targets for reduction on CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, a situation which may be worsened if new nuclear power stations are not built.{{fact}} The [[United Kingdom|UK]] also uses a large proportion of gas fired power stations, which produce relatively low (compared to coal) CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, but there have been recent difficulties in obtaining adequate gas supplies. The UK government has just appointed a new pro-nuclear energy minister.{{fact}}
-{{mainarticle|Nuclear power in Bulgaria}}
-Bulgaria operated 6 reactors, but four of them were deactivated in 2002 as a condition of joining the [[European Union]].  They are being replaced with 2 reactors of a more modern and powerful design.{{fact}}
-{{mainarticle|Nuclear power in Russia}}
-Russia operates 31 reactors, is building 3, and has plans for another 27.{{fact}}
 ===North America===