Veganism

File:VeganSociety.gif

The logo of the world's first Vegan Society, registered in 1944 [1]

Veganism is a lifestyle characterized by abstaining from the use or ingestion of animal products, and by avoiding the use of products that have been tested on animals. An animal product in this context refers not only to meat but to any substance derived from an animal, such as gelatin, eggs, honey, milk, other dairy products such as cheese, butter, whey, and cream, and ingredients such as casein and lactose. People become vegans for a number of reasons, primarily because they see it as supporting animal rights, or to try to allay their concerns for their health and the environment.

Most vegans avoid the use of all animal products, including leather, silk, fur, ivory and bone, and refrain from cosmetics, toiletries or household cleaners that contain animal-derived ingredients, such as beeswax or lanolin. Some people may use clothing or other items derived from animals, although they do not eat animal products. The latter are called "dietary vegans" or "vegans". Both terms are generally accepted, but strict vegans will only accept the former practices.

A Time/CNN poll published in Time Magazine on July 7, 2002 found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans. This suggests that 0.2% of American adults are vegans. A 2000 poll suggested closer to 0.9% of the adult American population may be vegan. [2] In the UK, research showed that 0.4%, approximately 250,000 people, were vegan in 2001. [3]

Definition

A selection of fruitarian foods. All fruitarian foods are also vegan

Veganism is defined by the British Vegan Society as:

In dietary terms it (veganism) denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals. [4]

The word vegan (usually pronounced /ˈviːgən/, more rarely /ˈveɪgən/, /ˈvɛdʒən/, or /ˈvɛˌdʒæn/) was originally derived from vegetarian in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society. The word starts and ends with the first three and last two letters of vegetarian, representing that veganism begins with vegetarianism. Therefore the term vegan was originally coined to describe vegetarians who eliminate all animal products in their diet. Since 1944 the term veganism has been expanded to mean people who seek to eliminate all animal products in all areas of their lives from those who simply avoid eating animal products.

Although veganism as a secular movement is a 20th century idea, the principles date back to the 2nd millennium BC in Hinduism (ahimsa).

Animal products

The term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to material derived from non-human animals for human use or consumption. Human breast milk, for example, is acceptable when used for human babies, but by comparison, when a human being drinks a cow's milk, it is regarded as the consumption of an "animal product."

Animal products include meat (including poultry and seafood), eggs, dairy products, fur, leather, wool, pearls, mother of pearl, and byproducts such as gelatin, lanolin, rennet, and whey. The Vegan Society includes insect products such as silk, honey, and beeswax in its definition.

There is some debate on the finer points of what constitutes an animal product: strict vegans avoid cane sugar that has been filtered with bone char, and will not drink beers and wines clarified with albumen (egg white), animal blood, or isinglass, even though these are not present in the final product. They may also avoid food cooked in pans if they have been used to cook non-vegan foods.

As well as avoiding animal products, most vegans refrain from supporting, directly or indirectly, industries that use animals, such as circuses featuring animals, and zoos, and from using toiletries, cosmetics, or other products that are tested on animals. Most vegans agree that it is very difficult to take part in society without indirectly and involuntarily supporting non-vegan activities to some degree.

Other ideals commonly held by some vegans (as well as some non-vegans) may include sustainable agricultural systems that exclude, or make use of animal by-products such as blood, fish emulsion, bone, and manures. Some vegans view the adoption of vegan organic horticultural and agricultural ("veganic") methodologies as integral to their ethical stance.

Motivation

Ethics

Hens kept in factory farmed conditions

The ethics of veganism is defined by the British Vegan Society as:

[A] philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; [5]

Vegans generally oppose what they see as the violence and cruelty involved in the meat, [6], dairy, and non-vegan cosmetics, clothing, and other industries. (See Draize test, LD50, Animal testing, Vivisection, and Factory farming.)

Utilitarian philosophers, such as Jeremy Bentham and Peter Singer, argue that the suffering of sentient animals is relevant to ethical decisions. Though Singer's ethical theory recognizes the suffering of sentient animals, it does not rely on the concept of rights. However, philosophers such as Tom Regan and Gary L. Francione argue that some animals are sentient, and therefore are the subjects of a life which they can value. Because they can do this, they argue, these animals have the inherent right to possess their own flesh, and they claim that it is therefore unethical to treat them as property, or as a commodity (see animal rights). People become vegans for a number of reasons, primarily because they see it as supporting animal rights, or to try to allay their concerns for their health and the environment.

Many non-vegans reject the part of the British Vegan Society's definition of veganism that implies that to be non-vegan is to support exploitation and cruelty to animal. For example, the National Cattleman's Beef Association (NCBA), representing the beef industry in the United States, supports the concept of "animal welfare", which it defines as "taking reasonable care of all animals and good animal husbandry practices" [7]. Most states have legislation to protect animal welfare, and specific industries such as scientific research, dairy and meat industries have their own code of conduct as well as regulations they must observe in their treatment of animals, though these codes of conduct are much looser than animal welfare legislation pertaining to domestic pets.

While much of the literature and media used to promote veganism cites the conditions of modern factory farms, some critics of the diet note that organic and more humanely animal-derived foods, malpractices notwithstanding, [8] are available in some countries. Milk and beef from smaller farms, for instance, may come from generally healthier and better cared-for cows. That brings the debate back to whether it is ethical for humans to make use of animals at all, which is usually the major underlying factor in a vegan's lifestyle choice.

Health

Dietary vegans believe a diet consisting of fresh fruit, vegetables, nuts and legumes, but excluding dairy, egg and animal-derived products has health benefits [9] [10]. Additionally health benefits that may influence people to become dietary vegans include avoiding various artificial substances such as growth hormones [11] [12] and antibiotics [13] [14] which are routinely given to factory-farmed animals. However, these artificial substances are much less likely to be found in free range meat and are absent in free range organic meat. Sometimes these dietary vegans go on to become full vegans.

The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada publicly state that "well-planned vegan and other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Vegetarian diets offer some nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals. Vegetarians have been anecdotally reported to have lower body mass indices than non-vegetarians, as well as lower rates of death from ischemic heart disease. This could also be explained by the fact that vegans in general tend to be more conscientious about diet than non-vegans. A meat-eater who is conscientious with diet to the same degree as a vegetarian will not have the same problems as one who is not. The health problems do not stem from meat-eating per se, but from a poor diet in general. Vegetarians as well as prudent meat-eaters also show lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer."

Environment

As with vegetarians, vegans may be motivated by the alleged high environmental costs of producing animal products. Often cited are the pollution of local environments by animal waste, as well as the resources used to care for livestock [15]. A commonly cited (and contested) statistic is that it takes 14 times more land area to support a meat eater than a vegetarian. This is due in part to the fact that caring for livestock requires resources to produce many inedible products (e.g., bone) and to serve as fuel for warmth and mobility, although a conscientious non-vegan can sometimes find uses for most animal by-products. In fact, it is claimed that only about 10% of the energy used in livestock is available for human consumption:

[O]nly a fraction of the energy at one trophic level can be passed on to the next. This fraction varies from a high of about 35 percent for the most efficient ... to below 0.1 percent...Given the inefficiency of the energy transfer from one trophic level to the next, it might seem that the earth could support more humans if we all stopped being omnivorous, and lived on a wholly vegetable diet instead of the combined animal and vegetable diet ... (Keeton)

The result is that producing food through livestock is said to be much less efficient than typical harvesting of fruits and vegetables, which, in the latter case, is said to typically use most or all of the product for human consumption. Note, however, that there are products of livestock farming that are useable. For example, animal excrement can be used as manure to fertilise food for human or animal consumption. By-products from butchering animals can be used to produce environmentally friendly biodiesel fuel [16]. The hair from certain animals can be used to provide insulation, e.g. Wool. Furthermore, herbivores use more energy to process plant matter than carnivores use to process animal matter. (Purves et. al, 2001)

Criticism of environmental motivations

Feed for animals in an agrarian economy is seldom cultivated for purposes of animal feed and is often the by product of crops primarily grown for human consumption, thus creating a meat output from hay and other plant produce. Factory farming, thus is often limited only to poultry in many parts of Africa, Asia and South America. In these regions animals are often seen as a sustainable way of life providing much needed protein and milk.

In most Asian countries, where rice is the staple food the reverse is often true, i.e. plant cultivation can be more environmentally damaging. The cultivation of paddy requires far greater quantity of water than most crops grown in Europe/America. Cultivating a single kilogram of rice requires 5,000 litres of water [17] and thus places a huge stress on the water supply far higher than would be needed for animal husbandry. (More than half the water consumed in rice production is used to prepare the land and most of this is lost in the process through percolation and seepage.) In fact rice cultivation is seen as the main culprit behind methane emissions. [18] Furthermore the increase in soybean consumption - a product used in many vegan foods - has led to concerns over its environmental impact. Greenpeace have complained that soybean cultivation in Brazil is encouraging Amazon rainforest deforestation. The increase in soyabean cultivation has led to losing large tracts of forest land leading to ecological damage as per WWF. Incidentally, this article also states that "The growing demand for animal feed – and finally for meat – drives the production of soybean."

Sexual

In the 19th century a vegan movement was started by Sylvester Graham, the father of Graham crackers, which focused on the sexual urges caused by meat. He claimed animal products caused lustful urges; Grahamism thus rejected meat, animal products, as well as alcohol, to create a more pure mind and body. Very popular in the 1860s-1880s, this movement rapidly lost steam and is now remembered more by its Graham crackers than anything else.

Similarly and contemporarily, some third-wave feminists reject the consumption of meat and analogize the use and objectification of animals to the use and objectification of women within society. This criticism focuses on societal construction of ties between women and the environment. See especially Carol Adams [19]. PETA especially has been criticised for contributing to and reinscribing this, especially in their 'Vegetarians make better lovers', anti-fur-trim ads, as well as 'I'd rather go naked than wear fur'.

Vegan cuisine

File:VeganSushi.jpg

An example of vegan cooking: vegetable sushi

Many dishes containing animal products can be adapted by substituting vegan ingredients. Soy milk can be used to replace traditional milk in most recipes, as can a variety of nut and grain "milks"; eggs can usually be replaced by substitutes such as products made from potato starch. Artificial "meat" products, such as imitation sausages, ground beef, burgers, and chicken nuggets are available in many supermarkets, although many are not purely vegetarian. Some Asian cuisines contain many dishes that are naturally vegan.

Vegans have several foods that they tend to eat in larger quantities than non-vegans. Among these are the soy products tofu and tempeh, and the wheat product seitan. Soy is a favourite "filler" in many processed foods, from sausages to breakfast cereals, which has boosted the often unwitting consumption of soy amongst the general population. Many vegans express concern about reliance on soy products, and prefer to experiment with a range of foods and cuisines.

Similar diets and lifestyles

There are several diets similar to veganism, though there are significant differences, including fruitarianism, the raw food diet, the macrobiotic diet and Natural Hygiene. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including some sects of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, as well as some Christian sects such as the Eastern Orthodox church and the Seventh-day Adventist Church.

More recently, many young people who subscribe to the anarcho-punk or straight edge punk movements have embraced veganism, and the corresponding beliefs of the animal rights movement. Straight Edge is a philosophy in which one does not partake in the drinking of alcohol, casual sex, or recreational drugs, and was born out of anger at the cultural excesses of the 1980s. Straight Veg, a term equivalent to vegan, arose as a response to the increasingly popular Straight Edge. Another recent variation of veganism is the "freegan" diet (practitioners sometimes called "opportunivores"), which essentially allows its practitioners to violate the tenets of veganism when a food item is free or of a post-consumer nature--that is, when that item would go to waste if not consumed.

An interesting sub-set of veganism, raw veganism, advocates the consumption only of raw foods and the elimination of processed foods from the diet. A study of raw vegans [20] found them to be slender and healthy, but noted that they had reduced essential bone mass and lower bone mineral density. The researchers said these results are "strongly associated with increased fracture risk", but noted that the raw vegans they studied had no other biological markers to indicate higher levels of osteoporosis, and that their bone turnover rates were normal.

Vegan nutrition

See main article: Vegan nutrition

For many people, a properly planned vegan diet presents no significant nutritional problems. Supplementation is highly recommended; this, though, applies to non-vegans, too. Drs. Fletcher and Fairfield concluded, in JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) in June 2002, that "It appears prudent for all adults to take vitamin supplements." The British government's annual survey of nutritional content of food, McCance and Widdowson's 'The Composition of Foods,' notes that the 2002 nutritional profile of foods is seriously lacking in trace elements compared with their 1931 profiles; indeed, a steady decline over the past 60 years has been noted. There are several nutrients vegans should pay attention to. These include Vitamin B12, iron and iodine: deficiencies in these are more likely following a vegan diet, and deficiencies of these potentially have serious consequences, including anemia, pernicious anemia, cretinism and hyperthyroidism. Interestingly, B12 deficiency can be a problem for others, too; aging, for example, can lead to an inability to absorb B12 from food, and supplementation is recommended for those over fifty-five years of age.

Some nutritionists have expressed concerns about the potential dangers in the vegan diet. This is especially true for young children where the failure to achieve adequate nutrition can lead to permanent developmental deficits. In widely reported comments, Professor Lindsey Allen of the U.S. Agricultural Research Service declared: "There's absolutely no question that it's unethical for parents to bring up their children as strict vegans." [21] She later added, "Unless those who practiced vegan diets were well-informed about how to add back missing nutrients through supplements or fortified foods," which she claims the original reporter inappropriately dropped. [22] Prof. Allen's comments were based on research backed by the American Cattlemen's Association in which she compared two groups of severely malnourished children in rural Africa who subsisted on only three foods, and how their extremely impoverished diets can be related to western dietary models is unclear.

In very severe cases, parents practising what they (sometimes erroneously) described as forms of veganism have been charged with child abuse for not providing adequate nutrition. [23] [24]

Dr. Per-Olaf Astrand of the Swedish Karolinska Institute conducted an informal study of diet and endurance using nine highly trained athletes, changing their diet every three days. At the end of every diet change, each athlete would pedal a bicycle until exhaustion. Those with a high protein and high fat meat (carnivore) diet averaged 57 minutes. Those that consumed a mixed (omnivore) diet, lower in meat, fat and protein averaged 1 hour and 54 minutes: twice the endurance of the meat and fat eaters. The vegetarian, high carbohydrate diet athletes lasted 2 hours and 47 minutes, triple the endurance of the high-protein group. (Source: Astrand, Per-Olaf, Nutrition Today 3:no2, 9-11, 1968) [25]

Protein

The role of protein in the vegan diet has been the source of some dissent and misunderstanding. While all vegetable foods contain protein, few vegetable proteins contain a complete set of the essential amino acids needed by the human body, and are deficient in one or more amino acids. It has been claimed that, since vegans do not consume "complete" animal-derived proteins such as egg, milk, meat and fish, they must perform a kind of protein combining on a daily basis to avoid suffering from protein deficiency. The most current measuring system for the "completeness" of a protein's amino acid content is called PDCAAS. A value of 1.0 is deemed complete, with 0 being completely deficient. To illustrate how certain vegetable foods complement one another, consider grain protein and bean protein. Grain protein has a PDCAAS of about 0.4 to 0.5, limited by lysine. On the other hand, it contains more than enough methionine. White bean protein (and that of many other pulses) has a PDCAAS of 0.6 to 0.7, limited by methionine, and contains more than enough lysine. When both are eaten in roughly equal quantities in a diet, the PDCAAS of the combined constituent is 1.0, because each constituent's protein is complemented by the other. Of course, this "value" is not an objective measure, but is simply in comparison with a hen's egg, which was assigned as the "base" marker for protein, with a "value" of 1.0 decades ago. However, the body is perfectly able to assemble all the amino acids necessary to good health by maintenance of a sufficient variety of foods in one's diet.

Vegans also note the following with regard to protein intake:

• When a variety of plant foods is consumed, the PDCAAS of the total diet approaches 1, even if no conscious protein combining is performed.
• Research has shown that the body maintains amino acid pools that only need to be repleted once every few days. This means that the relevant PDCAAS is not that of any single meal, but that of two or three days' worth of food. Considering the law of large numbers, this PDCAAS will be much closer to 1, if a variety of plant proteins is consumed.
• Human protein requirements are much lower than once assumed. A suboptimal PDCAAS is thus easily overcome if more than minimum protein is consumed. Peanuts, soy and other legumes, the alga spirulina and certain grains are some of the richest sources of plant protein.
• Popular meat and milk-replacement products contain soy, which is a "complete" protein as well. Soy is also very rich in protein. Soy milk without added sugar contains almost twice as much protein per calorie as cow's milk, and about five times as much as human milk.

Iodine

Residents of the UK may find themselves iodine-deficient if they rely on local produce, since in the UK iodine is usually obtained via dairy products rather than iodized salt that is more common elsewhere. The Vegan Society says, "Iodine is typically undesirably low (about 50 micrograms/day compared to a recommended level of about 150 micrograms per day) in UK vegan diets unless supplements, iodine rich seaweeds or foods containing such seaweeds (e.g. Vecon) are consumed. The low iodine levels in many plant foods reflects the low iodine levels in the UK soil, due in part to the recent ice-age." This demonstrates that location may also be a factor in what deficiencies may be present in any given diet.

Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12, a bacterial product, cannot be reliably found in plant foods, and so vegans are recommended to make sure they eat foods with B12 added (such as fortified soy milk, yeast extract, margarines, or many commercial breakfast cereals, such as Cheerios), certain brands of nutritional yeast, or take dietary supplements (a good multivitamin will likely include B12 in sufficient quantities). Tempeh, miso, and a few other fermented foods can sometimes contain B12 as well, though they can not always be considered reliable sources. Older people, vegan and non-vegan alike, may find they experience difficulties in absorbing B12 from their food, and pernicious anaemia, caused by a B12 deficiency, is not unknown amongst omnivores.

Iron

Iron is said by the Vegan Society to be present in many typically vegan foodstuffs, including grains, nuts and green leaves. However, the iron in these sources is in a less easily absorbed, non-heme form. Nevertheless, the Society quotes research to show that iron deficiency is no more prevalent in vegans than in the general population. This research did not account for the fact that many vegans take nutritional supplements that are not found in food alone, whereas other research that excludes this subset of people does indeed show a marked iron deficiency among a majority of those studied. It is important to note that iron deficiency is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies in the general population, and many nutritionists and dieticians recommend a daily multivitamin because of this. Vitamin C is necessary to the absorption of iron, and, indeed, can double or triple the amount of iron absorbed when taken with food (i.e. a glass of orange juice with a spinach salad). Vegans typically have high levels of vitamin C in their diets, which probably accounts for the rarity of anaemia amongst them.

Calcium

Calcium may also be a concern if the vegan is not eating a variety of foods, especially leafy green vegetables such as spinach, fortified products, almonds, soy products, and dried fruits.

DHA

One nutrient that is sometimes overlooked when analyzing the vegan diet is docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). DHA can be synthesized from alpha linolenic fatty acids; for non-vegetarians, good sources for this omega-3 fatty acid include seafood and eggs. This healthy fat can also be found in soybeans, walnuts, flaxseed, pumpkin seeds, and canola oil, and many vegans include these specific foods in their diets. This fatty acid is very important for brain function, eye function, and for the cellular transport of valuable nutrients. "ALA", a form of algae, can also be used as a supplementary source of DHA.

Omega-3 fatty acids must be taken into consideration for any diet, and special consideration taken for younger children and the elderly because growing and ageing brains need more of these nutritious fats. There are multiple sources of omega-3 fatty acids available to vegans: flaxseed oil (sometimes called edible linseed in the UK) and hemp oil, nuts (especially walnuts), and certain green, leafy vegetables all provide omega-3s as well. However, it must be understood that these foods contain only short-chain omega-3s, while oil-rich fish contains long-chain omega-3s; about ten times as much short-chain omega-3s must be eaten to have the same effect as long-chain omega-3s.[26]

Cultural aspects

Some have criticized the classist nature of "consumerist veganism" (that which is reliant on processed foods such as many soy-products), arguing that a vegan diet is much more common among those with class privilege. This is one of the most dominant responses to the Sexual Politics of Meat.

Veganism has been slowly gaining greater popularity amongst African-American since the 1960s because of the involvement of politically-oriented African-American activists, actors and musicians; a whole foods, mostly unprocessed diet is positioned as a return to ancestral African diets, an inexpensive and healthy alternative to current dietary habits, and a tool for [http://groups.msn.com/VegetarianSOULFOOD/ African-American empowerment in the face of socio-economic disadvantage, especially health. The main problem for the socially underprivileged appears to be not what is affordable, but what is available - stores in many poor areas tend to carry grains and rice in bulk, but not high-quality fresh produce, and so "grassroots" activists are placing more and more emphasis on community gardens as politically empowering and inexpensive resources for the urban poor.

Criticism

For those reliant on packaged goods, Veganism requires a level of attention to the details of consumption which many non-vegans view as impractical, particularly in the area of food preparation. Many dishes prepared in western culture involve at least one non-vegan element — dairy, in particular, is pervasive. And while most people are accustomed to the idea of vegetarianism, it is much more difficult for vegans to simply "eat around" the non-vegan elements in a meal. Some non-vegans may resent the extra effort of accommodating the vegan diet. Certain vegan substitutions for non-vegan ingredients (such as soy milk for cow's milk) only superficially resemble their animal- or meat-based analogues. Cooking, as a chemical process, relies on properties (such as the fat content of milk) that plant- and animal-based ingredients do not always share, and so in some recipes calling for animal products, the vegan substitutions may not work well. Many Vegans choose to relinquish such recipes entirely rather than deal with what they view as disagreeable substitutions.

Avoiding clothing and shoes containing wool or leather, most brands of latex condoms (as latex is often produced with the milk protein casein), hygiene products such as most soap, to name a few, requires serious research. Film, make-up, and many other products in society are created using animal products. Many consider vegan lifestyle choices to be somewhat inconvenient, whereas many vegans consider it to be simply a case of changing habits in line with ethical priorities; this fundamental disagreement over the importance of convenience vs. inconvenience is unlikely to resolve itself.

Many health supplements (vitamins, minerals, herbal alternatives, etc.) are placed inside small pharmaceutical capsules made of gelatin in order to make their contents easier to swallow. [27] Since gelatin is an animal product [28], many vegans find this choice rather inconvenient, with the main alternatives being limited to either abstaining from the supplement, finding supplements in cellulose capsules (a plant product), or getting the nutrient from whole foods. Online retailers have emerged, selling vegan alternatives to such products.

In healthcare, vegans face other difficulties. Nearly all medication, and most dietary supplements as well, contain a number of ingredients that are derived from animal sources. The medicine itself, or inactive ingredients in the pill may be made from chemicals such as magnesium stearate, coated in gelatin, or bound together with lactose. When the medicine itself is derived from an animal source (such as birth control pills) there may not be acceptable substitute. Many Vegans accept this as something that can not be changed yet, while others remove the medicines from their lives. In Western countries, over-the-counter medication is often sold in vegetarian and vegan forms, a choice that may not be available in other parts of the world.

Individuals may not be fully aware of the many products used in routine health care by their medical provider or during a hospital stay. Catgut is still used in sutures and other materials as benign as latex gloves may be used and disposed during regular treatment. In some cases, vegans may have no choice but to make use of life-saving drugs like Antivenom, which is derived from animals. Almost all drugs sold in the United States are the result of animal testing, as it is a requirement of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Most cosmetics, toiletries, household cleaners, pesticides, and other products used around the home also contain ingredients that have been tested on animals, though there is a growing number of alternatives available.

Criticisms have also focused on the prevalence of eating disorders within people espousing a vegan lifestyle. However, though there appears to be correlation, there does not appear to be causation. Anorexics, for example, often find the excuse of "veganism" an attractive cover for their pre-existing eating disorder.

See also

• Vegetarianism
• Environmentalism
• Living foods diet
• Nonviolence
• Peter Singer, author of Animal Liberation

References

• Davis, B et al. Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet. Tennessee: Book Publishing Company, 2000.
• C. de Haan et al. Livestock and the Environment: Finding a Balance FAO, USAID, World Bank, 1998. Provides evidence of environmental damage caused by animal farming, mainly factory farming.
• Keeton, W.T. et al. Biological Science, 5th Ed., Publishers: W. W. Norton & Company, New York and London., ISBN 0-393-96223-7 (hardback)
• Langley, G. Vegan Nutrition: a survey of research, The Vegan Society 1988, ISBN 0-907337-15-5
• Moore Lappe, F. Diet for a Small Planet. Ballantine Books, 1985.
• Moore Lappe, F. & Lappe, A. Hope's Edge: The Next Diet for a Small Planet. Jeremy P. Tarcher Publishing, 2003.
• Smil, V. Rationalizing Animal Food Production, in Feeding the World: A Challenge for the 21st Century, MIT Press, London, 2000. This provides evidence for the amount of grain required to raise livestock.
• Torres, B. and Torres, J. Vegan Freak: Being Vegan in a Non-Vegan World. Tofu Hound Press. 2005. ISBN: 0977080412 (paperback).
• Walsh, S. Plant Based Nutrition and Health, The Vegan Society 2003, ISBN 0-907337-26-0 (paperback), ISBN 0-907337-27-9 (hardback).
• Meet Your Meat a PETA-produced slaughterhouse tour narrated by Alec Baldwin
• "Non-vegan prescriptions?" by Jo Stepianak, Grassroots Veganism, retrieved October 26, 2005
• "Anger over 'pig' secret of prescribed drug by Martin Shipman, The Western Mail, December 27, 2002, retrieved October 26, 2005
• FAQ, Vegan Resource Group, retrieved October 26, 2005

External links

• An Animal-Friendly Life Offers a wide variety of vegan links
• American Vegan Society
• HappyCow's Veg*n Guide
• Mad Cowboy, Howard Lyman
• Movement for Compassionate Living (The Vegan Way)
• NotMilkMan
• People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
• Vegan Society (UK)
• Essays by Joanne Stepaniak
• The Vegan Society (UK) webpages on nutrition