Napoleon III: Difference between revisions
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{{Redirect|Louis Napoleon}} |
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{{Infobox President |
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|name = Napoleon III |
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|nationality = French |
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|image = Franz Xaver Winterhalter Napoleon III.jpg |
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|caption = |
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|birth_date = 20 April 1808 |
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|birth_place = [[Paris, France]] |
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|death_date = {{Death date and age|1873|1|09|1808|4|20|df=yes}} |
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|death_place = [[Chislehurst]], [[London]], [[United Kingdom]] |
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|party = [[Independent (politician)|Independent]], [[Bonapartist]] |
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|spouse = [[Eugénie de Montijo]] |
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|blank1=Issue |
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|data1=[[Louis Napoléon, Prince Imperial]] |
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|blank2=Full name |
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|data2=Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte |
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|blank3=Father |
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|data3=[[Louis Bonaparte]] |
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|blank4=Mother |
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|data4=[[Hortense de Beauharnais]] |
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|order = [[Emperor of the French]] |
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|term_start = 2 December 1852 |
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|term_end = 4 September 1870 |
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|predecessor = ''[[de facto]]'', himself, as [[President of the French Republic|President]] of the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] <br> [[Louis-Eugène Cavaignac]] as ''de facto'' Head of State before him. <br> ''[[de jure]]'', [[Louis Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe I]] as previous monarch. |
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|successor = '''Monarchy abolished'''<br> ''de facto'' [[Louis Jules Trochu]] as Chairman of the [[Government of National Defense]]<br> in [[pretence]], [[Louis Napoléon, Prince Imperial|Napoleon IV]] |
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|order2 = 1<sup>st</sup> [[President of the French Republic]] |
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|term_start2 = 20 December 1848 |
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|term_end2 = 2 December 1852 |
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|primeminister2=[[Odilon Barrot]], [[Alphonse Henri, comte d'Hautpoul]], [[Léon Faucher]] |
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|predecessor2=[[Louis-Eugène Cavaignac]]<br><small>Prime Minister and de facto Head of State</small> |
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|successor2 =[[Second French Empire]]<br><small>with Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte as emperor. Next President was [[Adolphe Thiers]] starting 1871 as President of the [[Third French Republic|Third Republic]] |
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}} |
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'''Napoleon III''' (20 April 1808{{ndash}} 9 January 1873), also known as '''Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte''', né '''Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte''', was the [[President of the French Republic|President]] of the [[French Second Republic]] and the ruler of the [[Second French Empire]]. He was also the nephew of [[Napoleon I]]. Elected President [[French presidential election, 1848|by popular vote in 1848]], he undertook a [[French coup of 1851|coup d'état in 1851]], becoming dictator before ascending to the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. He ruled as ''Emperor of the French'' until September 4, 1870. He holds the unusual distinction of being both the first [[Titular ruler|titular]] [[List of Presidents of the French Republic|president]] and the last [[List of French monarchs|monarch]] of [[France]]. |
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Napoleon III is primarily remembered for [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris|renovating Paris]], and several military ventures, including French participation in the [[Crimean War]], the [[French conquest of Senegal|conquest of Senegal]], the [[Second Opium War]], the [[Cochinchina Campaign]], the [[Second Italian War of Independence]], the [[French intervention in Mexico|Franco-Mexican War]], the [[Taiping Rebellion]], the [[French Campaign against Korea, 1866|1866 campaign against Korea]], the [[Boshin War]], and the [[Franco-Prussian War]]. The [[Second French Empire]] was overthrown three days after Napoleon's disastrous surrender at the [[Battle of Sedan]] in [[1870]], which resulted in both the proclamation of the [[French Third Republic]] and the cession of the territory of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] to the newly-formed [[German Empire]].<ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/louis-bonaparte Columbia Encyclopedia, ''Napoleon III''. Sixth Edition, 2004, Columbia University Press.]</ref> |
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==Early life== |
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Napoleon III, known as "Louis Napoléon" prior to becoming Emperor, was the nephew of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]] by his brother [[Louis Bonaparte]], who married [[Hortense de Beauharnais]], the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleon's wife [[Josephine de Beauharnais]]. The [[Empress Josephine]] proposed the marriage as a way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Josephine was by then infertile.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bresler|first=Fenton|publisher=Harper Collins|city=London|year=1999|page=20|isbn=0002557878}}</ref> Louis's paternity has been brought into question (''see [[Napoleon_III_of_France#Ancestry|Ancestry]]''). Louis Bonaparte also harboured a lifelong suspicion about his legitimacy, although most historians have concluded that he was conceived by Louis Bonaparte and Hortense.<ref>{{harvnb|Bresler|1999|p=37}}</ref> |
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During Napoleon I's reign, Louis-Napoléon's parents had been made king and queen of a French [[puppet state]], the [[Kingdom of Holland]]. After Napoleon I's military defeats and deposition in 1815 and the restoration of the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] monarchy in France, all members of the [[Bonaparte dynasty]] were forced into [[exile]]. The little Louis-Napoléon was brought up in [[Switzerland]], living with his mother in [[Arenenberg|Arenenberg Castle]] in the canton of [[Thurgau]], and in [[Germany]], receiving his education at the [[gymnasium school]] at [[Augsburg]], [[Bavaria]]. As a young man he settled in [[Italy]], where he and his elder brother [[Napoleon Louis Bonaparte|Napoléon Louis]] espoused liberal politics and became involved with the [[Carbonari]], an organization fighting [[Austria]]'s domination of northern [[Italy]]. On March 17, 1831, while attempting to flee Italy due to a crackdown on revolutionary activity by Papal and Austrian troops, Louis-Napoléon's brother, suffering from [[measles]], died in his arms.<ref>{{harvnb|Bresler|1999|p=94-95}}</ref> His experiences in Italy later had a profound effect on his [[foreign policy]].[[Image:Napol3.jpg|thumb|left|The Four Napoleons (Collage, about 1858)]] |
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Meanwhile, France was under first the Bourbon and then the [[Orleanist]] monarchies. Under the latter emerged a [[Bonapartist]] movement that wanted to restore a Bonaparte to the throne. According to the law of succession Napoleon I had made when he was Emperor, the claim passed first to his son, the [[Napoleon II|Duke of Reichstadt]], known by Bonapartists as [[Napoleon II of France|Napoleon II]], or as "the King of Rome", the title his father had given him before the collapse of the Empire, a sickly youth living under virtual imprisonment at the court of [[Vienna]]. Next in line was Napoleon I's eldest brother [[Joseph Bonaparte]], followed by Louis Bonaparte and his sons. Since Joseph had no male children, and because Louis-Napoléon's own elder brother had died in 1831, the death of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1832 made Louis-Napoléon the Bonaparte heir in the next generation. His uncle and father, relatively old men by then, left to him the active leadership of the Bonapartist cause. |
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Thus he secretly returned to France in October 1836, for the first time since his childhood, to try to lead a Bonapartist [[coup]] at [[Strasbourg]]. [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe]] had established the [[July Monarchy]] in 1830, and was confronted with opposition from the [[Legitimist]]s, the Independents and the Bonapartists. The coup failed and Louis-Napoléon returned to Switzerland. When Louis-Philippe demanded his [[extradition]], the Swiss refused to hand over a man who was a citizen and a member of their armed forces. In order to avoid a war, Louis-Napoléon left Switzerland of his own accord. |
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Louis-Napoléon stayed at No. 6 Clarendon Square, [[Royal Leamington Spa]], between 1838-1839. The building is now called Napoleon House and has a '[[Blue plaque]]' put up by the local council. |
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He was quietly exiled to the [[United States of America]], and spent four years in [[New York]]. He also sailed to [[Central America]]. He secretly returned to France and attempted yet another coup in August 1840, sailing with some hired soldiers into [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]]. This time, he was caught and sentenced to [[life imprisonment]], albeit in relative comfort, in the fortress of the town of [[Ham, Somme|Ham]] in the Department of the Somme. While in the Ham fortress, his eyesight reportedly became poor. During his years of imprisonment, he wrote essays and pamphlets that combined his claim to be emperor with [[progressive]], mildly [[socialism|socialist]] economic proposals, which he came to define as [[Bonapartism]]. In 1844, his uncle Joseph died, making him the [[heir apparent]] to the Bonaparte claim. He finally escaped to [[Southport]], [[England]] in May 1846 by changing clothes with a mason working at the fortress. His enemies would later derisively nickname him "Badinguet", the name of the mason whose identity he assumed. A month later, his father Louis died, making Louis-Napoléon the clear Bonapartist candidate to rule France. |
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==Return to France== |
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Louis-Napoléon lived within the borders of the [[United Kingdom]] until the [[Revolutions of 1848 in France|revolution of February 1848]] in France deposed [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe]] and established a Republic. He was now free to return to France, which he immediately did. However, he found himself being asked to leave by the provisional government, which felt that he was an unnecessary distraction.<ref>{{harvnb|Randell|1991|p=73-74}}</ref> Back in England, he volunteered to be a [[Special Constabulary|special constable]] in the event of [[Chartism|Chartist]] rioting.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Visit Deferred|author=Unknown|publisher=[[The New York Times]]|date=1855-01-01|accessdate=2009-05-01|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=950DEEDE123DE034BC4953DFB766838E649FDE}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Revolution: 500 Years of Struggle for Change|author=Mark Almond|page=96|chapter=The Springtime of the Peoples|publisher=[[De Agostini]]|year=1996|isbn=1899883738}}</ref> In the same month, April, he ran for, and won, a seat in [[French Constituent Assembly election, 1848|the assembly]] elected to draft a new constitution. He did not make a great contribution and, as a mediocre public orator, failed to impress his fellow members. Some even thought that, having lived outside of France almost all his life, he spoke [[French language|French]] with a slight German accent.<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1912</ref> His temporary exile in 1848 proved to be a blessing in disguise for the December presidential election, as it meant he played no part in the [[June Days Uprising|June Days]], and was able to enhance his image as "all things to all men" against his main opponent, [[Louis-Eugène Cavaignac]], who had led the repression against the [[working-class]] of Paris.<ref>{{harvnb|Randell|1991|p=74}}</ref> |
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==President of the French Republic== |
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[[Image:Napoleon-3.jpg|thumb|Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte]] |
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When the constitution of the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] was finally promulgated and [[French presidential election, 1848|direct elections for the presidency]] were held on 10 December 1848, Louis-Napoléon won a surprising landslide victory, with 5,587,759 votes (around 75% of the total); his closest rival, Cavaignac, received only 1,474,687 votes. Louis-Napoléon had no long political career behind him and was able to depict himself as "all things to all men". The [[Monarchist]] right (supporters of either the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] or [[House of Orléans|Orléanist]] royal households) and much of the upper class supported him as the "least bad" candidate, as a man who would restore order, end the instability in France which had continued since the overthrow of the monarchy in February, and prevent a proto-communist revolution (in the vein of [[Friedrich Engels]]). A good proportion of the industrial working class, on the other hand, were won over by Louis-Napoléon's vague indications of [[Progressivism|progressive]] economic views. His overwhelming victory was above all due to the support of the non-politicized rural masses, to whom the name of Bonaparte meant something, as opposed to the other, little-known contenders. Louis-Napoléon's platform was the restoration of order after months of political turmoil, strong government, social consolidation, and national greatness, to which he appealed with all the credit of his name, that of France's national hero, Napoleon I, who in popular memory was credited with raising the nation to its pinnacle of military greatness and establishing social stability after the turmoil of the [[French Revolution]]. During his term as President, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte styled himself ''the Prince-President'' (''Le Prince-Président''). |
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Despite his landslide victory, Louis-Napoléon was faced with a Parliament dominated by monarchists, who saw his government only as a temporary bridge to a restoration of either the House of Bourbon or of Orléans. Louis-Napoléon governed cautiously during his first years in office, choosing his ministers from among the more "[[centre-right]]" [[Orleanist]] [[Parti de l'Ordre]] monarchists, and generally avoiding conflict with the conservative assembly. He courted Catholic support by assisting in the restoration of the Pope's temporal rule in Rome, although he tried to please secularist conservative opinion at the same time by combining this with peremptory demands that the Pope introduce liberal changes to the government of the [[Papal States]], including appointing a liberal government and establishing the [[Code Napoleon]] there, which angered the Catholic majority in the assembly. He soon made another attempt to gain Catholic support, however, by approving the ''[[Loi Falloux]]'' in 1851, which restored a greater role for the Church in the French educational system. |
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In the third year of his four-year mandate, President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte asked the National Assembly for a revision of the constitution to enable the president to run for re-election, arguing that four years were not enough to implement his political and economic program fully. The Constitution of the Second Republic stated that the Presidency of the Republic was to be held for a single term of four years, with no possibility of re-election, a restriction written in the Constitution for fear that a President would abuse his power to transform the Republic into a dictatorship with a [[president for life]]. The National Assembly, dominated by monarchists who wished to restore the Bourbon dynasty, refused to amend the Constitution. |
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The National Assembly law placed restrictions on universal male suffrage, imposing a three-year residency requirement. It prevented a large proportion of the lower class, which was itinerant, from voting. In spite of his limited powers forcing him to acquiesce to this law, Louis-Napoléon was able to seize the opportunity and break with the Assembly and the conservative ministers opposing his projects in favour of the dispossessed. He surrounded himself with lieutenants completely loyal to him, such as [[Charles Auguste Louis Joseph, duc de Morny|Morny]] and [[Persigny]], secured the support of the army, and toured the country making populist speeches condemning the assembly and presenting himself as the protector of universal male suffrage. |
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After months of stalemate, and using the money of his mistress, [[Harriet Howard]], he [[French coup of 1851|staged a coup d'état]] and seized dictatorial powers on 2 December 1851, the 47<sup>th</sup> anniversary of Napoleon I's crowning as Emperor, and also the 46<sup>th</sup> anniversary of the famous [[Battle of Austerlitz]] (hence another of Louis-Napoléon's nicknames: "The Man of December", "''l'homme de décembre''"). The coup was later declared to have been approved by the French people in a national referendum, the fairness and legality of which has been questioned by Napoleon III's detractors ever since. The coup of 1851 definitely alienated the reactionary and careerist elements in the Assembly. [[Victor Hugo]], who had hitherto shown support for Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, decided to go into exile after the coup, and became one of the harshest critics of Napoleon III, despite the amnesty of political opponents in 1859. |
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==Emperor of the French== |
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{{Bonaparte}} |
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===Authoritarian empire=== |
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New constitutional statutes were passed which officially maintained an elected Parliament and re-established universal male [[suffrage]]. However, the Parliament now became irrelevant as real power was completely concentrated in the hands of Louis-Napoléon and his [[bureaucracy]]. Exactly one year after the [[coup]], on 2 December 1852, after approval by another referendum, the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] was officially ended and the Empire restored, ushering in the [[Second French Empire]]. President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III. The numbering of Napoleon's reign treats [[Napoleon II of France|Napoleon II]], who never actually ruled, as a true Emperor (he had been briefly recognized as emperor from 22 June to 7 July 1814). That same year, Napoleon III began shipping [[political prisoner]]s and criminals to penal colonies such as [[Devil's Island]] or (in milder cases) [[New Caledonia]]. |
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[[File:Napoleon III 1863.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon III in 1863]] |
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The emperor, hitherto a bachelor, began quickly to look for a wife to produce a legitimate heir. Most of the royal families of [[Europe]] were unwilling to marry into the [[parvenu]] Bonaparte family, and after rebuffs from [[Carola of Vasa|Princess Carola of Sweden]] and from [[Queen Victoria]]'s German niece [[Princess Adelheid of Hohenlohe-Langenburg]], Napoleon decided to lower his sights somewhat and "marry for love", choosing the Countess of Teba, [[Eugénie de Montijo]], a [[Spain|Spanish]] noblewoman of partial [[Scotland|Scottish]] ancestry who had been brought up in Paris. In 1856, Eugenie gave birth to a legitimate son and heir, [[Louis Napoléon, Prince Imperial|Louis Napoléon]], the ''Prince Impérial''. |
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On 28 April 1855 Napoleon survived an attempted [[assassination]]. On 14 January 1858 Napoleon and his wife escaped another assassination attempt, plotted by [[Felice Orsini]]. |
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Until about 1861, Napoleon's regime exhibited decidedly [[authoritarian]] characteristics, using press [[censorship]] to prevent the spread of opposition, manipulating elections, and depriving the Parliament of the right to free debate or any real power. |
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===Liberal empire=== |
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In the decade of the 1860s, Napoleon III made more concessions to placate his liberal opponents. This change began by allowing free debates in Parliament and public reports of parliamentary debates, continued with the relaxation of press censorship, and culminated in the appointment of the Liberal [[Émile Ollivier]], previously a leader of the opposition to Napoleon's regime, as (effectively) Prime Minister in 1869. This later period is described by historians as the [[Liberal Empire]]. |
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[[File:L'impératrice Eugénie en robe de cour, 1862, Franz Xaver Winterhalter.jpg|thumb|left|[[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugénie]], Empress of the French]] |
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===Economic and social policy=== |
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The French economy was rapidly modernized under Napoleon III, who desired a legacy as a reform-minded social engineer. The industrialization of France during this period, in general, appealed to members of both the business interests and the working classes. Downtown Paris was renovated with the clearing of slums, the widening of streets, and the construction of parks according to [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris|Baron Haussmann's plan]]. Working class neighbourhoods were moved to the outskirts of Paris, where factories utilized their labour. Some of his main backers were [[Saint-Simonian]]s, and these supporters described Napoleon III as the "socialist emperor." Saint-Simonians at this time founded a new type of banking institution, the ''Crédit Mobilier'', which sold stock to the public and then used the money raised to invest in industrial enterprises in France. This sparked a period of rapid economic development. |
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Napoleon's Empire has been said to be the first regime in France to give "distinct priority to economic objectives". Napoleon sought to advance his belief in [[free trade]], cheap [[Credit (finance)|credit]], and the need to develop [[infrastructure]] as ways of ensuring progress and prosperity through government policy. Napoleon, like Haussmann and [[Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin, duc de Persigny|Pesigny]], believed that the [[budget deficit]]s that the state incurred due to its high contributions would be offset by subsequent high profits.<ref>{{harvnb|Plessis|1989|p=62-63}}</ref> His regime has also been cited as one of the few in French history to make a concerted effort towards breaking down trade barriers.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-56.html|title=Nicolas Sarkozy and France, May 2007: a historical perspective|author=Robert Tombs|publisher=History & Policy|date=May 2007|accessdate=2009-05-27}}</ref> |
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As it turned out, this time period was favourable for industrial expansion. The [[California Gold Rush|gold rush in California]], and later [[Victorian gold rush|Australia]], increased the European money supply. In the early years of the Empire, the economy also benefited from the coming of age of those born during the [[baby boom]] of the [[Bourbon Restoration|Restoration]] period.<ref>{{harvnb|Plessis|1989|p=60-61}}</ref> The steady rise of prices caused by the increase of the money supply encouraged company promotion and investment of capital. The mileage of railways in France increased from 3,000 to 16,000 kilometres during the 1850s, and this growth of railways allowed mines and factories to operate at higher rates of productivity. The 55 smaller rail lines of France were merged into 6 major lines, while new iron steamships replaced wooden ships. Between 1859 and 1869, a French company built the [[Suez Canal]], opening a new chapter in global transportation and trade. |
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===Algeria=== |
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[[Algeria]] had been under French rule since 1830. Compared to previous administrations, Napoleon was far more sympathetic to the native Algerians, who appealed to his romantic sentiments. Because of this he halted European migration inland, restricting them to the coastal zone. Moreover, he freed the Algerian rebel leader [[Abd al Qadir]] (who had been promised freedom on surrender but was imprisoned by the previous administration) and gave him a stipend of 150,000 francs. He also allowed Muslims to serve in the military and civil service on theoretically equal terms and allowed them to migrate to France. In addition, he gave the option of citizenship; however, for Muslims to take this option they had to accept all of the French civil code, including parts governing inheritance and marriage which might conflict with Muslim tradition, and they had to reject the competence of religious courts. This was interpreted by some Muslims as requiring them to give up parts of their religion to obtain citizenship and was resented. |
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One of the most influential decisions Louis Napoleon made in Algeria was to change its system of land tenure. While ostensibly well-intentioned, in effect this move destroyed the traditional system of land management and deprived many Algerians of land. While Napoleon did renounce state claims to tribal lands, he also began a process of dismantling tribal land ownership in favour of individual land ownership over the course of three generations, though this process was accelerated by later administrations. This process was corrupted by French officials sympathetic to French in Algeria who took much of the land they surveyed into public domain; in addition many tribal leaders, chosen for loyalty to the French rather than influence in their tribe, immediately sold communal land for cash. |
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===Foreign policy=== |
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In his speech at Bordeaux in 1852, Napoleon III famously proclaimed that "The Empire means peace" ("''L'Empire, c'est la paix''", literally 'The Empire, it is peace'), reassuring foreign governments that the new Emperor Napoleon would not attack other European powers in order to extend the French Empire. He was, however, thoroughly determined to follow a strong foreign policy to extend France's power and glory, and warned that he would not stand by and allow another European power to threaten its neighbour. He was also a partisan of a "policy of nationalities" (literally "politique de nationalités") re-casting the map of Europe, sweeping away small principalities to create unified nation-states, even when this seemed to have little relevance to France's material interests. In this he remained influenced by the themes of his uncle's policy, as related in the ''Mémorial de Sainte Hélène'', such as Italian unification and a united Europe. These two factors led Napoleon to a certain adventurism in foreign policy, in the opinion of some contemporaries, although this was tempered by pragmatism. |
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====The Crimean War==== |
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{{main|Crimean War}} |
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Napoleon's challenge to Russia's claims to influence in the Ottoman Empire led to France's successful participation in the Crimean War (March 1854–March 1856). During this war Napoleon established a French alliance with Britain, which continued after the war's close. The defeat of Russia and the alliance with Britain gave France increased authority in Europe. This was the first war between European powers since the close of the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna, marking a breakdown of the alliance system that had maintained peace for nearly half a century. The war also effectively ended the Concert of Europe and the Quadruple alliance, or "Waterloo Coalition" that the other four powers had established. The Paris Peace Conference of 1856 represented a high-water mark for the regime in foreign affairs, when Napoleon had followed through with his ideas set out in Les Idées Napoleoniennes.<ref>{{harvnb|Markham|1975|p=199}}</ref> |
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====Asia==== |
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In 1857, Napoleon III provided his assistance in negotiations to end the [[Anglo-Persian War]], leading to the March 1857 [[Treaty of Paris (1857)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=8eUTLaaVOOQC&pg=PA80 ''Immortal'' Steven R. Ward, p.80]</ref> |
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[[Image:Jean-Leon Gerome 001.JPG|thumb|left|Napoleon III receiving the [[France-Thailand relations|Siamese embassy]] at the palace of Fontainebleau in 1864]] |
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In East Asia, Napoleon took the first steps to establishing a French colonial influence in [[Indochina]]. He approved the launching of a naval expedition under [[Charles Rigault de Genouilly]] in 1858 to punish the [[Vietnam]]ese for their mistreatment of French Catholic missionaries and force the court to accept a French presence in the country. An important factor in his decision was the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power by not expanding its influence in East Asia. Also, the idea that France had a civilizing mission was spreading. |
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[[Image:Prise de Saigon 18 Fevrier 1859 Antoine Morel-Fatio.jpg|thumb|[[Capture of Saigon]] by [[Charles Rigault de Genouilly]] on 18 February 1859, painted by [[Antoine Morel-Fatio]].]] |
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This eventually led to a full-out invasion in 1861. By 1862 the war was over and Vietnam conceded three provinces in the south, called by the French [[Cochinchina|Cochin-China]], opened three ports to French trade, allowed free passage of French warships to [[Cambodia]] (which led to a French protectorate over Cambodia in 1863), allowed freedom of action for French missionaries and gave France a large indemnity for the cost of the war. France did not intervene, however, in the [[Christian]]-supported [[Vietnam]]ese rebellion in [[Bac Bo]], despite the urging of missionaries, or in the subsequent slaughter of thousands of Christians after the rebellion. |
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[[Image:Looting of the Yuan Ming Yuan by Anglo French forces in 1860.jpg|thumb|left|Looting of the [[Yuan Ming Yuan]] by Anglo-French forces in the [[Second Opium War]] in 1860.]] |
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In [[China]], France took part in the [[Second Opium War]] along with the [[United Kingdom]], and in 1860 French troops entered [[Beijing]]. China was forced to concede more trading rights, allow freedom of navigation of the [[Yangtze]], give full civil rights and freedom of religion to Christians, and give France and Britain a huge indemnity. This combined with the intervention in Vietnam set the stage for further French influence in China leading up to a sphere of influence over parts of southern China. |
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[[Image:JulesBrunet.jpg|thumb|The [[French military mission to Japan (1867–1868)]] before its departure in 1866.]] |
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In 1866, French naval troops attacked [[Korea]] in response to the execution of French missionaries there. Though the [[French Campaign against Korea, 1866|campaign against Korea]] was primarily the work of the ranking French diplomat in China and not formally authorized by the French government, its failure nevertheless resulted in the decline of French influence in the region. In 1867, a [[French military mission to Japan (1867–1868)|military mission to Japan]] played a key role in modernizing the troops of the [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Yoshinobu]], and even participated on his side against Imperial troops during the [[Boshin war]]. |
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====Italy==== |
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As President of the Republic, Louis-Napoléon sent French troops to help restore Pope [[Pius IX]] as ruler of the Papal States in 1849 after his rule had been overthrown by the revolutionaries led by [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] and [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] who had proclaimed the [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]] (although as a ''[[Carbonari|Carbonaro]]'' he had been involved in plotting a similar revolt in the Papal States during his youth in Italy). This won him support in France from Catholics (although many remained supporters of the Bourbon monarchy at heart). Yet at the same time he had sent an emissary to negotiate with the revolutionary Italian nationalist [[Mazzini]]. The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] observes: "In this way the difficulties of the future emperor reveal themselves from the beginning; he wished to spare the religious susceptibilities of French Catholics" and yet to support "the national susceptibilities of the Italian revolutionists -- a double aim which explains many an inconsistency" in his policy. |
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Napoleon remained attached to the ideal of Italian nationalism which he had embraced in his youth, and wished particularly to end Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venice (he always nursed a dislike for Austria as the incarnation of [[reactionary]], legitimate monarchy and the great barrier to the reconstruction of Europe on nationalist lines, again traceable back to his Carbonaro days). As Emperor, Napoleon dreamed of doing this, and thus satisfying his own inclinations and winning over liberal and left-wing opinion in France (which was passionately in favour of Italian unification) while at the same time supporting the Pope in Rome and thus maintaining conservative and Catholic support in France. These contradictory desires were evident in his policy in Italy. |
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In April-July 1859 Napoleon made a secret deal at [[Plombières-les-Bains]] with [[Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour|Cavour]], Prime Minister of [[Piedmont]], for France to assist in expelling Austria from the [[Italian peninsula]] and bringing about a [[Italian unification|united Italy]], or at least a united northern Italy, in exchange for Piedmont ceding to France [[Savoy]] and the [[Nice]] region (which was destined to become the so-called [[French Riviera]]). He [[Austro-Sardinian War|went to war with Austria]] in 1859 and won victories at [[Battle of Magenta|Magenta]] and [[Battle of Solferino|Solferino]], which resulted in the ceding of [[Lombardy]] to Piedmont by Austria (and in return received Savoy and Nice from Piedmont as promised in 1860). After this had been done, however, Napoleon decided to end French involvement in the war. This early withdrawal, however, failed to prevent central Italy, including most of the Papal states, being incorporated into the new Italian state. This led Catholics in France to turn against Napoleon. Napoleon tried to redress the damage by maintaining French troops in the city of Rome itself, which prevented the Italian government seizing it from the Pope, a policy which Napoleon's devoutly Catholic wife Eugenie fervently supported. However, Napoleon on the whole failed to win back Catholic support at home (and made moves to appeal instead to the anti-Catholic left in his domestic policy in the 1860s, most notably by appointing the [[anti-clerical]] [[Victor Duruy]] Minister for Education, who further secularised the schooling system). Nonetheless, French troops remained in Rome to protect the Pope until the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. |
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====Grand Scheme for the Americas==== |
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Napoleon III envisioned a "Grand Scheme for the Americas," which would consist of three general points. The first involved recognition of the [[Confederate States of America]] and a military alliance with them. The second involved reintroducing monarchical rule to [[Latin America]], in the form of [[Maximillian I of Mexico|Maximillian I]] in [[Second Mexican Empire|Mexico]], and increasing French trade throughout Latin America. The third and final point involved control over Mexico with the creation of a large [[buffer state]] from the [[Rio Grande]] to the [[Baja California peninsula|Californian Baja]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Crucible of Power:A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913 |last=Jones |first=Howard |authorlink=|coauthors= |year=2002 |publisher=SR Books |location=Lanham, MD |isbn=0-8420-2916-8 |pages=212 }}</ref> |
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=====Mexico===== |
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{{main|French intervention in Mexico|Second Mexican Empire}} |
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[[Image:BattleofPuebla2.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of Puebla]], Mexico.]] |
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Another example of Napoleon's adventurism in foreign policy was the [[French intervention in Mexico]] (January 1862–March 1867). Napoleon, using as a pretext the [[Mexican Republic]]'s refusal to pay its foreign debts, planned to establish a French sphere of influence in [[North America]] by creating a French-backed monarchy in [[Mexico]], a project that was supported by Mexican [[conservative]]s who resented the Mexican Republic's [[laicism]]. The [[United States]] was unable to prevent this contravention of the [[Monroe Doctrine]] because of the [[American Civil War]]; Napoleon hoped that the [[Confederate States of America|Confederates]] would be victorious in that conflict, believing they would accept the new regime in Mexico. |
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But his imperial dreams would not be so easy to achieve. In [[Mexico]] the French army suffered its first military defeat in 50 years,<ref>[http://thebulletin.us/articles/2009/05/07/arts_culture/monkeybrains/doc49fa6aad6bd12177671001.txt Philadelphia News Article reporting Mexican were outnumbered 2-to-1] The Bulletin: Philadelphia's Family Newspaper, "Cinco De Mayo: Join In The Celebration On The Fifth Of May", May 7, 2009. By Cheryl VanBuskirk. Retrieved June 5, 2009. </ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/kpbs/theborder/history/timeline/10.html PBS Reports French Army Knew No Defeat for Almost 50 Years.] Retrieved February 6, 2009.</ref> on the [[Fifth of May]], 1862 in [[Puebla]] when the Mexican army under the leadership of General [[Ignacio Zaragoza]] defeated a much better-equipped French army. The defeat not only surprised the world, but served to revitalize the national spirit of Mexicans, helping to sustain a [[guerrilla warfare]] that lasted 5 years. In the end, it remained the [[Second Mexican Empire]]. |
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With the support of Mexican conservatives and French troops, in 1863 Napoleon installed [[Maximilian I of Mexico]], a [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] prince, as emperor. Ruling President [[Benito Juarez]] and his Republican forces retreated to the countryside and fought against the French troops and the Mexican monarchists. |
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The combined Mexican monarchist and French forces won victories up until 1865, but then the tide began to turn against them, in part because the American Civil War had ended. The U.S. government was now able to give practical support to the Republicans, supplying them with arms and establishing a naval blockade to prevent French reinforcements arriving from Europe. Due to continued losses inflicted by the Mexican guerrillas loyal to the Republic and the threat of an American military intervention, Napoleon withdrew French troops from Mexico in 1866, which left Maximilian and the Mexican monarchists doomed to defeat in 1867. Despite Napoleon's pleas that he abdicate and leave Mexico, Maximilian refused to abandon the Mexican conservatives who had supported him, and remained alongside them until the bitter end, when he was captured by the Republicans and then shot on 19 June 1867. The complete failure of the Mexican intervention was a humiliation for Napoleon, and he was widely blamed across Europe for Maximilian's death. However, letters have since shown that Napoleon III and [[Leopold I of Belgium|Leopold of Belgium]] both warned Maximilian not to depend on European support. [[Eugénie de Montijo|Empress Eugénie]] has also been largely blamed for the fiasco, the implication being that she tried to meddle in affairs of state in order to get over her husband's affairs of the heart.<ref>''Maximilian and Carlota'' by Gene Smith, ISBN 0245524185, ISBN 978-0245524189</ref> |
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[[Empress Carlota of Mexico]] visited [[Napoleon III]] and [[Empress Eugénie]] at [[Tuileries Palace|Les Tuileries]] to request financial and military aid to rescue the agonizing empire, but her petitions were rejected. Charlotte in turn insulted the Emperor and his wife by mocking their humble origins. She subsequently declined into [[mental illness]]. |
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=====United States of America===== |
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{{main|French weapons in the American Civil War}} |
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[[Image:Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg|thumb|The Confederacy's last ironclad, [[Japanese battleship Kōtetsu|''Stonewall'']], was provided by France.]] |
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In the beginning of the 1860s, the objectives of the Emperor in foreign policy had been met: France scored several military victories in Europe and abroad, the defeat at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] had been exorcised, and France was once again a significant continental military power. |
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During the [[American Civil War]], Napoleon III positioned France to lead the pro-[[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] European powers. For a time, Napoleon III inched steadily toward officially recognizing the Confederacy, especially after the crash of the cotton industry and his exercise in regime-changing in Mexico. Some historians have also suggested that he was driven by a desire to keep the American states divided. Through 1862, Napoleon III entertained Confederate diplomats, raising hopes that he would unilaterally recognize the Confederacy. The Emperor, however, could do little without the support of the United Kingdom, and never officially recognized the Confederacy. |
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====Prussia==== |
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A far more dangerous threat to Napoleon, however, was looming. France saw its dominance on the continent of Europe eroded by [[Prussia]]'s crushing victory over [[Austria]] in the [[Austro-Prussian War]] in June–August 1866. Due in part to his [[Carbonari|Carbonaro]] past, Napoleon was unable to ally himself with Austria, despite the obvious threat that a victorious Prussia would pose to France. Napoleon felt secure in the presumption that the war with Austria would be drawn out, or would result in Austrian victory, when he agreed not to intervene in 1864.<ref>{{harvnb|Markham|1975|p=203}}</ref> Yet, having decided not to prevent the Prussian rise to power by allying against her, Napoleon also failed to take the opportunity to demand Prussian consent to French territorial expansion in return for France's neutrality. Napoleon only requested that Prussia agree to French annexation of [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]] after Prussia had already defeated Austria, by which time France's neutrality was no longer needed by Prussia. This extraordinary foreign policy failure saw France gain nothing while allowing Prussia's strength to increase greatly. In part the reason for the Emperor's blunder must be laid on his deteriorating health during this period—he had begun to suffer from a [[bladder stone]] that caused him great pain, even preventing him from riding a horse.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,802905-2,00.html|publisher=Time|date=1943-07-26|accessdate=2008-03-06|title=Bazaine and Retain}}</ref> |
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Napoleon's later attempt in 1867 to re-balance the scales by purchasing Luxembourg from its ruler, [[William III of the Netherlands]], was thwarted by a Prussian threat of war. The [[Luxembourg Crisis]] ended with France renouncing any claim to Luxembourg in the [[Treaty of London (1867)]]. |
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==Demise== |
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[[Image:BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg|thumb|left||340px|Napoleon III having a conversation with [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] after his defeat and capture at Sedan.]] |
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Napoleon III paid the price for his failure to help defend Austria from Prussia in 1870 when, goaded by the diplomacy of the Prussian Prime Minister (and chancellor of the North German Confederation, and soon of the new German Empire) [[Otto von Bismarck]], he began the [[Franco-Prussian War]]. This war proved disastrous for France, and was instrumental in giving birth to the [[German Empire]], which would take France's place as the major land power in continental Western Europe until the end of [[World War I]]. In battle against Prussia in July 1870 the Emperor was captured at the [[Battle of Sedan]] (2 September) and was deposed by the forces of the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] in Paris two days later. |
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Napoleon spent the last few years of his life in exile in England, with Eugenie and their only son. The family lived at Camden Place [[Chislehurst]], (then in [[Kent]]), where he died on 9 January 1873. He was haunted to the end by bitter regrets and by painful memories of the battle at which he lost everything; Napoleon's last words, addressed to Dr. Henri Conneau standing by his deathbed, reportedly were, "Were you at Sedan?" ("''Etiez-vous à Sedan''?")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/81/5545.html|accessdate=2008-03-06|publisher=Bartleby.com|title=Napoleon III Quotes}}</ref> |
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The Emperor died during a multistage process to break up a [[bladder stone]]. The surgeon [[Sir Henry Thompson, 1st Baronet|Sir Henry Thompson]], sounded the emperor and detected a bladder stone. [[Lithotripsy]] (a technique to fragment the stone so that it could be passed) was performed on 2 January and 6 January under [[chloroform]] anaesthesia delivered by [[Joseph Thomas Clover]].<ref>Sykes WS (1960). ''Essays on the First Hundred Years of Anaesthesia'', Vol. 2, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh. ISBN 0 443 02866 4, p. 8.</ref> The cause of death was reportedly [[kidney failure]] and [[septicaemia]].<ref name="Williams">{{cite book|author=Roger L. Williams|title=The Mortal Napoleon III|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] (1971), ISBN 0-691-05192-5}}</ref> Clover and Thompson signed the post-mortem report with four other physicians; however, it has long been suspected that the operation was botched due to the arrogance of [[Sir Henry Thompson, 1st Baronet|Thompson]], resulting in the Emperor's untimely death.<ref name="Bresler">{{cite book|author=Fenton Bresler|title=Napoleon III: A Life|publisher=Carroll & Graf Publishers (1999), ISBN 0-786-70660-0}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Napoleon III after Death - Illustrated London News Jan 25 1873-2.PNG|thumb|350px|Napoleon III after his death; wood-engraving in the [[Illustrated London News]] of 25 January 1873, after a photograph by Mssrs. Downey.]] |
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[[Image:Napoleon III Sarcophagus.jpg|thumb|right||340px|Napoleon III's [[Sarcophagus]] within the crypt at [[St Michael's Abbey, Farnborough]].]] |
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Napoleon was originally buried at St. Mary's, the Catholic Church in Chislehurst. However, after his son died in 1879 fighting in the British Army against the Zulus in South Africa, the bereaved Eugenie decided to build a monastery. The building would house monks driven out of France by the anti-clerical laws of the Third Republic, and would provide a suitable resting place for her husband and son. Thus, in 1888, the body of Napoleon III and that of his son were moved to the Imperial Crypt at [[St Michael's Abbey, Farnborough|St Michael's Abbey]], [[Farnborough, Hampshire|Farnborough]], [[Hampshire]], England. Eugenie, who died many years later, in 1920, now rests there with them. It was reported in 2007 that the French Government was seeking the return of his remains to be buried in France, but that this is opposed by the monks of the abbey.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/12/09/wroman309.xml|date=2007-12-09|accessdate=2008-03-06|title=French seeking emperor's corpse}}</ref> |
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==Personal life== |
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Louis Napoleon has a reputation as a womanizer, yet he referred to his behaviour in the following manner: "It is usually the man who attacks. As for me, I defend myself, and I often capitulate."<ref name="Kelen">{{cite book|author=Betty Kelen|title=The Mistresses. Domestic Scandals of the 19th-Century Monarchs|publisher= Random Hours, New York (1966)}}</ref> He had many mistresses. During his reign, it was the task of Count Felix Bacciochi, his social secretary, to arrange for trysts and to procure women for the emperor's favours. His affairs were not trivial sideshows: they distracted him from governing, affected his relationship with the empress, and diminished him in the views of the other European courts.<ref name="Bierman">{{cite book|author=MFEM Bierman|title=Napoleon III and His Carnival Empire|publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]], New York, 1988, ISNB 0-312-01827-4}}</ref> Among his numerous love affairs and mistresses were:<ref name="Baguley">{{cite book|author=David Baguley|title=Napoleon III and His regime. An Extravaganza|publisher=[[Louisiana State University Press]] (2000), ISNB 0-8071-2664-1}}</ref> |
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[[File:Marguerite Bellanger par Paul Hadol.jpg|thumb|130px|left|[[Paul Hadol]]'s caricature of [[Marguerite Bellanger|Bellanger]] toying with Napoleon]] |
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* [[Mathilde Bonaparte]], his cousin and fiancee; |
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* Maria Anna Schiess (1812-1880), Allensbach (Lake of Constance, Germany), mother of his son Bonaventur Karrer (1839-1921); <ref>[http://stoessel.wordpress.com/2008/08/13/nachkommen-descendant-von-napoleon-iii/ Wordpress.com]</ref> |
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* Alexandrine Éléonore Vergeot, laundress at the prison at [[Ham, Somme|Ham]], mother of his sons Alexandre Louis Eugène and Louis Ernest Alexandre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mapage.noos.fr/shv2/enfants-vergeot.htm|title=Les enfants de Napoléon et Eléonore Vergeot|publisher=Société d'Histoire du Vésinet|language=French|accessdate=2008-02-06}}</ref> |
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* Elisa [[Rachel Felix]], the "most famous actress in Europe"; |
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* [[Harriet Howard]], (1823-1865) wealthy and a major financial backer; |
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* [[Virginia Oldoini]], Countess de Castiglione, (1837-1899)claimed to be the most beautiful woman of her time, sent by [[Camillo Cavour]] to influence his politics; |
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* [[Marie-Anne Waleska]], a possible mistress, who was the wife of Count [[Alexandre Joseph Count Colonna-Walewski]], his relative and foreign minister; |
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* Justine Marie Le Boeuf, also known as [[Marguerite Bellanger]], actress and acrobatic dancer. Bellanger was falsely rumoured to be the illegitimate daughter of a [[hangman]], and was the most universally loathed of the mistresses, though perhaps his favourite;<ref>{{harvnb|Markham|1975|p=201}}</ref> |
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* Countess [[Louise de Mercy-Argenteau]], (1837-1890), likely a [[platonic love|platonic]] relationship, author of ''The Last Love of an Emperor'', her reminiscences of her association with the emperor. |
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His wife, Eugenie, resisted his advances prior to marriage. She was coached by her mother and her friend, [[Prosper Mérimée]]. "What is the road to your heart?" Napoleon demanded to know. "Through the chapel, Sire," she purportedly answered. <ref name="Kelen"/> Yet, after marriage, it took not long for him to stray as Eugenie found sex with him "disgusting".<ref name="Kelen"/> It is doubtful that she allowed further approaches by her husband once she had given him an heir.<ref name="Bierman"/> |
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By his late forties, Napoleon started to suffer from numerous medical ailments, including [[kidney disease]], [[bladder]] stones, chronic bladder and [[prostate]] infections, [[arthritis]], [[gout]], [[obesity]], and the effects of chronic smoking. In 1856 Dr. Robert Ferguson, a consultant called from London, diagnosed a "nervous exhaustion" that had a "debilitating impact upon sexual ... performance"<ref name="Baguley"/> and reported this also to the [[British government]].<ref name="Bierman"/> |
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==Legacy== |
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An important legacy of Napoleon III's reign was the rebuilding of [[Paris]]. Part of the design decisions were taken in order to reduce the ability of future revolutionaries to challenge the government by capitalizing on the small, medieval streets of Paris to form barricades. However, this should not overshadow the fact that the main reason for the complete transformation of Paris was Napoleon III's desire to modernize Paris based on what he had seen of the modernizations of London during his exile there in the 1840s. With his characteristic social approach to politics, Napoleon III desired to improve health standards and living conditions in Paris with the following goals: build a modern sewage system to improve health, develop new housing with larger apartments for the masses, create green parks all across the city to try to keep working classes away from the pubs on Sunday, etc. Large sections of the city were thus flattened down and the old winding streets were replaced with large thoroughfares and broad avenues. The rebuilding of Paris was directed by [[Baron Haussmann]] (1809–1891; Prefect of the [[Seine (département)|Seine]] ''[[département]]'' 1853–1870). It was this rebuilding that turned Paris into the city of broad tree-lined boulevards and parks so beloved of tourists today. |
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With [[Prosper Mérimée]], Napoleon III continued to seek the preservation for numerous medieval buildings in France, which had been left disregarded since the French revolution (a project Mérimée had begun during the July Monarchy). With [[Viollet-le-Duc]] acting as chief architect, many buildings were saved, including some of the most famous in France: [[Notre Dame de Paris|Notre Dame Cathedral]], [[Mont Saint Michel|Mont Saint-Michel]], [[Carcassonne]], [[Vézelay Abbey]], Pierrefonds, [[Château de Roquetaillade|Roquetaillade]] castle, and others. |
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Napoleon III also directed the building of the French railway network, which greatly contributed to the development of the coal mining and steel industry in France, and thereby radically changing the nature of the French economy, which entered the modern age of large-scale capitalism. The French economy, the second largest in the world at the time (behind the [[United Kingdom]]), experienced a very strong growth during the reign of Napoleon III. Names such as steel tycoon [[Eugène Schneider]] or banking mogul [[James Mayer Rothschild|James de Rothschild]] are symbols of the period. Two of France's largest banks, [[Société Générale]] and [[Crédit Lyonnais]], still in existence today, were founded during that period. The French stock market also expanded prodigiously, with many coal mining and steel companies issuing stocks. |
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Although largely forgotten by later Republican generations, which only remembered the non-democratic nature of the regime, the economic successes of the Second Empire are today recognized as impressive by historians. The emperor himself, who had spent several years in exile in Victorian [[Lancashire]], was largely influenced by the ideas of the [[Industrial Revolution]] in England, and he took particular care of the economic development of the country. He is recognized as the first ruler of France to have taken great care of the economy; previous rulers considering it secondary. |
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His military adventurism is sometimes considered a fatal blow to the [[Concert of Europe]], which based itself on stability and balance of powers, whereas Napoleon III attempted to rearrange the world map to France's favour even when it involved radical and potentially revolutionary changes in politics. |
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A [[Canon obusier de 12|12-pound cannon]] designed by [[France]] is commonly referred to as a '''Napoleon cannon''' or '''12-pounder Napoleon''' in his honour. |
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Napoleon III, to this day, lacks the favourable historical reputation that Napoleon I enjoyed. [[Victor Hugo]] portrayed him as "Napoleon the Small" (''[[Napoléon le Petit]]''), a mere mediocrity, in contrast with Napoleon I "The Great", presented as a military and administrative genius. In France, such arch-opposition from the age's central literary figure, whose attacks on Napoleon III were obsessive and powerful, made it impossible for a very long time to assess his reign objectively. [[Karl Marx]], in ''[[The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon]]'', famously mocked Napoleon III by saying that historical facts and personages often appear twice: "The first time as tragedy, the second time as farce."<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/199908160018|title=As Marx wrote, history occurs three times: first as tragedy, second as a movie, and third enacted by ducks|author=Sean French|publisher=''[[New Statesman]]''|date=1999-08-16|accessdate=2009-07-07}}</ref> Napoleon III has often been seen as an authoritarian but ineffectual leader who brought France into dubious, and ultimately disastrous, foreign military adventures. |
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Historians have also emphasized his attention to the fate of working classes and poor people. His book ''Extinction du paupérisme'' ("Extinction of pauperism"), which he wrote while imprisoned at the Fort of Ham in 1844, contributed greatly to his popularity among the working classes and thus his election in 1848. Throughout his reign the emperor worked to alleviate the sufferings of the poor, on occasion breaching the nineteenth-century economic orthodoxy of complete [[laissez-faire]] and using state resources or interfering in the market. Among other things, the Emperor granted the right to strike to French workers in 1864, despite intense opposition from corporate lobbies. Marxist sociologist [[Goran Therborn]] has characterized the reign of Napoleon III as the "first modern bourgeois regime": one which combined a movement of mass support with bourgeois rule, albeit through authoritarian statist means.<ref>{{citebook|author=Goran Therborn|title=What Does the Ruling Class Do When It Rules?|isbn=9781844672103|year=2008 [1978]|page=198|publisher=[[Verso]]}}</ref> According to Therborn, such a form of rule, ossified upon the point of crisis, proves fatal to such regimes once major external crises emerge.<ref>Therborn, p. 201</ref> |
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The Emperor also ordered the creation of three large parks in Paris ([[Parc Monceau]], [[Montsouris|Parc Montsouris]], and [[Parc des Buttes Chaumont]]) with the clear intention of offering them for poor working families as an alternative to the pub (''bistrot'') on Sundays, much as [[Victoria Park, East London|Victoria Park]] in [[London]] was also built with the same social motives in mind. |
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==Paternity== |
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Speculation about his [[Paternity (law)|paternity]] was a favourite topic of his detractors, <ref name="Bierman"/> as his parents were estranged and his mother Hortense was known to have multiple lovers. However, the parents met briefly between 23 June and 6 July 1807, nine and a half months prior to his birth, and there is no reason to assume that Louis was not his father. Additionally, Article 312 of the Napoleonic Code stated (and still states) that the father of any child born within wedlock is the mother's husband. The meeting prior to his birth meant that there was no "impossibility" of conception, and that the Article 312 designated Louis as the father of the future Napoleon III. <ref>''Napoleon III'', Georges Roux</ref> |
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== Ancestry == |
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{{ahnentafel top|width=100%}} |
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{{ahnentafel-compact5 |
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|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe; |
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| 1 = '''Napoléon III, Emperor of the French''' |
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| 2 = [[Louis Bonaparte]] |
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| 3 = [[Hortense de Beauharnais]] |
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| 4 = [[Carlo Buonaparte]] |
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| 5 = [[Letizia Ramolino]] |
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| 6 = [[Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais]] |
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| 7 = [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] |
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| 8 = [[Giuseppe Maria Buonaparte]] |
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| 9 = Maria-Saveria Paravicini |
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| 10= Giovanni Geronimo Ramolino |
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| 11= Angela Maria Pietrasanta |
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| 12= [[Francis V of Beauharnais|François de Beauharnais, Marquess de la La Ferté-Beauharnais]] |
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| 13= Marie Henriette Pyvart de Chastullé |
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| 14= Joseph-Gaspard de Tascher, chevalier, seigneur de la Pagerie |
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| 15= Rose-Claire des Vergers de Sanois |
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| 16= [[Sebastiano Nicolo Buonaparte]] |
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| 17= Maria-Anna Tusilo di Bocognano |
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| 18= Giuseppe Maria Paravisini |
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| 20= Gio-Augustino Ramolino |
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| 22= Giuseppe Maria Pietra-Santa |
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| 24= [[Claude de Beauharnais (1680–1738)|Claude de Beauharnais, Seigneur de Beaumont, Comte des Roches-Baritaud]] |
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| 25= Renee Hardouineau |
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| 26= Francois Jacques Pyvart, Seigneur de Chastulle |
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| 27= Jeanne Hardouineau de Landaniere |
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| 28= Gaspard Joseph Tascher de la Pagerie |
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| 29= Françoise Bourreau de la Chevalerie |
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| 30= Joseph François des Vergers de Sannois |
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| 31= Catherine Marie Brown |
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}}</center> |
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{{ahnentafel bottom}} |
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==Bibliography== |
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*''Les Idees Napoleoniennes'' - an outline of Napoleon III's opinion of the optimal course for France, written before he became Emperor. |
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* ''History of Julius Caesar'', a historical work he wrote during his reign. He drew an analogy between the politics of [[Julius Caesar]] and his own, as well as those of his uncle. |
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* Napoleon III wrote a number of articles on military matters (artillery), scientific issues ([[electromagnetism]], pro and con of beet versus cane sugar), historical topics (The [[stuart dynasty|Stuart]] kings of Scotland), and on the feasibility of the [[Nicaragua canal]]. His pamphlet ''On the Extinction of Pauperism'' helped his political advancement. |
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* David H. Pinkney, ''Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris'' (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1958; paperback ed., 1972) ISBN 0691007683. |
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==See also== |
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* [[Bonaparte]] |
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* [[History of France]] |
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* [[List of coupled cousins#Royalty|List of coupled cousins]] |
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* [[Second French Empire]] |
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==References== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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==Sources== |
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*Thompson, J.M. ''Louis Napoleon and the Second Empire.'' Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965. |
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* {{citation|last=Plessis|first=Alain|title=The Rise & Fall of the Second Empire 1852-1871|location=Paris|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1989}} |
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* {{citation|last=Randell|first=Keith|title=Monarchy, Republic & Empire|publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]]|year=1991|isbn=0340517057|series=Access to History}} |
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* {{citation|last=Markham|first=Felix|title=The Bonapartes|publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]]|location=London|year=1975|isbn=0297769286}} |
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* {{citation|last=Bresler|first=Fenton|title=Napoleon III: A Life|publisher=[[Harper Collins]]|location=London|year=1999|isbn=0002557878}} |
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==Further reading== |
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: Among the leading comprehensive histories of the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] include: |
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* De la Gorce, ''Histoire du second empire'', (four volumes, Paris, 1885-98), and |
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* Taxile Delord, ''Histoire du second empire'', (six volumes, Paris, 1869-76). |
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* Bernhard Simson, ''Ueber die Beziehungen Napoleond III. zu Preussen und Deutschland'', (Freiburg, 1882) |
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* Adolf Ebeling, ''Napoleon III. und sein Hof'', (Cologne, 1891-94) |
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* Thirra, ''Napoléon III avant l'empire'', (Paris, 1895) |
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* [[Émile Ollivier|E. Ollivier]], ''L'Empire libéral'', (Paris, 1895-1909) |
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* A. L. Imbert de Saint-Amand, ''Napoleon III at the Height of his Power'', (New York, 1900) |
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* T. W. Evans, ''Memoirs of the Second French Empire'', (New York, 1905) |
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* Fenton Bresler, ''Napoleon III: A Life'', (London, 1999) |
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* [[David Harvey]], ''Paris: Capital of Modernity'', (New York: Routledge, 2003) |
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*[[Marie-Clotilde-Elisabeth Louise de Riquet, comtesse de Mercy-Argenteau]], ''The Last Love of an Emperor'': reminiscences of the Comtesse Louise de Mercy-Argenteau, née Princesse de Caraman-Chimay, describing her association with the Emperor Napoleon III and the social and political part she played at the close of the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] (Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, Page & Co., 1926). |
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* Johannes Willms, ''Napoleon III. Frankreichs letzter Kaiser'' (München, C.H.Beck, 2008), 311 S. |
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==Movie portrayals== |
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* [[Leon Ames (actor)|Leon Ames]] played him in [[Suez (film)|''Suez'']] (1938), although [[Loretta Young]] as Eugenie is a more prominent character. |
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* [[Claude Rains]] portrays him in [[Juarez (1939 film)|''Juarez'']] (1939) as a weak man ready to betray Maximilian in Mexico. |
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* [[Jerome Cowan]] plays Napoleon III in ''[[The Song of Bernadette (film)|The Song of Bernadette]]'' (1943). |
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* [[Guy Bates Post]] plays Louis Napoleon in ''[[Maytime (film)|Maytime]]'' (1936). |
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==External links== |
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{{commons|Napoleon III}} |
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{{Wikisource1911Enc|Napoleon III}} |
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*[http://www.archive.org/details/napoleonicideasd00napouoft ''Napoleonic ideas. Des idées napoléniennes (1859)'' at archive.org] |
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*[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&idno=AHJ8942.0001.001&view=toc ''History of Julius Caesar'' vol. 1 at MOA] |
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*[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&idno=AHJ8942.0002.001&view=toc ''History of Julius Caesar'' vol. 2 at MOA] |
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*[http://www.archive.org/details/histoiredejulesc01napoiala ''Histoire de Jules César (Volume 1) '' in French at archive.org] |
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* [http://caricaturesetcaricature.over-blog.com/article-6400408.html Editorial cartoons of the Second Empire] |
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*[http://www.historicfarnborough.co.uk/ Historic Farnborough] |
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*{{findagrave|7414}} |
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*[http://www.computours.co.uk/beziers/place_de_la_revolution/ Place de la Revolution, Béziers & Napoleon 111] |
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{{s-tul|title=[[List of French monarchs|Emperor of the French]]|years=25 July 1846 – 2 December 1852|reason=[[Bourbon Restoration]]|start=1815|end=1830}} |
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{{s-non|reason=became Emperor|reason2=[[Second French Empire|Second French Empire declared]]}} |
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{{s-new|loss|reason=[[French Third Republic|French Third Republic declared]]}} |
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{{s-tul|rows=|title=[[List of French monarchs|Emperor of the French]]|years=4 September 1870 – 9 January 1873}} |
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{{s-aft|rows=|after=[[Napoléon Eugène, Prince Imperial|Napoleon IV]]}} |
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{{Persondata |
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|NAME = Napoleon III |
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = |
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION = First President of the French Republic and last monarch of France |
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|DATE OF BIRTH = 20 April 1808 |
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|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Paris]], France |
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|DATE OF DEATH = 9 January 1873 |
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|PLACE OF DEATH = [[Chislehurst]], London, England |
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}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Napoleon 03 Of France}} |
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Revision as of 11:32, 11 March 2010
![]() | This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. (March 2008) |
Napoleon III | |
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![]() | |
Emperor of the French | |
In office 2 December 1852 – 4 September 1870 | |
Preceded by | de facto, himself, as President of the Second Republic Louis-Eugène Cavaignac as de facto Head of State before him. de jure, Louis-Philippe I as previous monarch. |
Succeeded by | Monarchy abolished de facto Louis Jules Trochu as Chairman of the Government of National Defense in pretence, Napoleon IV |
1st President of the French Republic | |
In office 20 December 1848 – 2 December 1852 | |
Prime Minister | Odilon Barrot, Alphonse Henri, comte d'Hautpoul, Léon Faucher |
Preceded by | Louis-Eugène Cavaignac Prime Minister and de facto Head of State |
Succeeded by | Second French Empire with Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte as emperor. Next President was Adolphe Thiers starting 1871 as President of the Third Republic |
Personal details | |
Born | 20 April 1808 Paris, France |
Died | 9 January 1873 Chislehurst, London, United Kingdom | (aged 64)
Political party | Independent, Bonapartist |
Spouse | Eugénie de Montijo |
Issue | Louis Napoléon, Prince Imperial |
Full name | Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte |
Father | Louis Bonaparte |
Mother | Hortense de Beauharnais |
Napoleon III (20 April 1808– 9 January 1873), also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, né Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, was the President of the French Second Republic and the ruler of the Second French Empire. He was also the nephew of Napoleon I. Elected President by popular vote in 1848, he undertook a coup d'état in 1851, becoming dictator before ascending to the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. He ruled as Emperor of the French until September 4, 1870. He holds the unusual distinction of being both the first titular president and the last monarch of France.
Napoleon III is primarily remembered for renovating Paris, and several military ventures, including French participation in the Crimean War, the conquest of Senegal, the Second Opium War, the Cochinchina Campaign, the Second Italian War of Independence, the Franco-Mexican War, the Taiping Rebellion, the 1866 campaign against Korea, the Boshin War, and the Franco-Prussian War. The Second French Empire was overthrown three days after Napoleon's disastrous surrender at the Battle of Sedan in 1870, which resulted in both the proclamation of the French Third Republic and the cession of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine to the newly-formed German Empire.[1]
Early life
Napoleon III, known as "Louis Napoléon" prior to becoming Emperor, was the nephew of Napoleon I by his brother Louis Bonaparte, who married Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleon's wife Josephine de Beauharnais. The Empress Josephine proposed the marriage as a way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Josephine was by then infertile.[2] Louis's paternity has been brought into question (see Ancestry). Louis Bonaparte also harboured a lifelong suspicion about his legitimacy, although most historians have concluded that he was conceived by Louis Bonaparte and Hortense.[3]
During Napoleon I's reign, Louis-Napoléon's parents had been made king and queen of a French puppet state, the Kingdom of Holland. After Napoleon I's military defeats and deposition in 1815 and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France, all members of the Bonaparte dynasty were forced into exile. The little Louis-Napoléon was brought up in Switzerland, living with his mother in Arenenberg Castle in the canton of Thurgau, and in Germany, receiving his education at the gymnasium school at Augsburg, Bavaria. As a young man he settled in Italy, where he and his elder brother Napoléon Louis espoused liberal politics and became involved with the Carbonari, an organization fighting Austria's domination of northern Italy. On March 17, 1831, while attempting to flee Italy due to a crackdown on revolutionary activity by Papal and Austrian troops, Louis-Napoléon's brother, suffering from measles, died in his arms.[4] His experiences in Italy later had a profound effect on his foreign policy.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_Four_Napoleons.jpg/220px-The_Four_Napoleons.jpg)
Meanwhile, France was under first the Bourbon and then the Orleanist monarchies. Under the latter emerged a Bonapartist movement that wanted to restore a Bonaparte to the throne. According to the law of succession Napoleon I had made when he was Emperor, the claim passed first to his son, the Duke of Reichstadt, known by Bonapartists as Napoleon II, or as "the King of Rome", the title his father had given him before the collapse of the Empire, a sickly youth living under virtual imprisonment at the court of Vienna. Next in line was Napoleon I's eldest brother Joseph Bonaparte, followed by Louis Bonaparte and his sons. Since Joseph had no male children, and because Louis-Napoléon's own elder brother had died in 1831, the death of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1832 made Louis-Napoléon the Bonaparte heir in the next generation. His uncle and father, relatively old men by then, left to him the active leadership of the Bonapartist cause.
Thus he secretly returned to France in October 1836, for the first time since his childhood, to try to lead a Bonapartist coup at Strasbourg. Louis-Philippe had established the July Monarchy in 1830, and was confronted with opposition from the Legitimists, the Independents and the Bonapartists. The coup failed and Louis-Napoléon returned to Switzerland. When Louis-Philippe demanded his extradition, the Swiss refused to hand over a man who was a citizen and a member of their armed forces. In order to avoid a war, Louis-Napoléon left Switzerland of his own accord.
Louis-Napoléon stayed at No. 6 Clarendon Square, Royal Leamington Spa, between 1838-1839. The building is now called Napoleon House and has a 'Blue plaque' put up by the local council.
He was quietly exiled to the United States of America, and spent four years in New York. He also sailed to Central America. He secretly returned to France and attempted yet another coup in August 1840, sailing with some hired soldiers into Boulogne. This time, he was caught and sentenced to life imprisonment, albeit in relative comfort, in the fortress of the town of Ham in the Department of the Somme. While in the Ham fortress, his eyesight reportedly became poor. During his years of imprisonment, he wrote essays and pamphlets that combined his claim to be emperor with progressive, mildly socialist economic proposals, which he came to define as Bonapartism. In 1844, his uncle Joseph died, making him the heir apparent to the Bonaparte claim. He finally escaped to Southport, England in May 1846 by changing clothes with a mason working at the fortress. His enemies would later derisively nickname him "Badinguet", the name of the mason whose identity he assumed. A month later, his father Louis died, making Louis-Napoléon the clear Bonapartist candidate to rule France.
Return to France
Louis-Napoléon lived within the borders of the United Kingdom until the revolution of February 1848 in France deposed Louis-Philippe and established a Republic. He was now free to return to France, which he immediately did. However, he found himself being asked to leave by the provisional government, which felt that he was an unnecessary distraction.[5] Back in England, he volunteered to be a special constable in the event of Chartist rioting.[6][7] In the same month, April, he ran for, and won, a seat in the assembly elected to draft a new constitution. He did not make a great contribution and, as a mediocre public orator, failed to impress his fellow members. Some even thought that, having lived outside of France almost all his life, he spoke French with a slight German accent.[8] His temporary exile in 1848 proved to be a blessing in disguise for the December presidential election, as it meant he played no part in the June Days, and was able to enhance his image as "all things to all men" against his main opponent, Louis-Eugène Cavaignac, who had led the repression against the working-class of Paris.[9]
President of the French Republic
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Napoleon-3.jpg/220px-Napoleon-3.jpg)
When the constitution of the Second Republic was finally promulgated and direct elections for the presidency were held on 10 December 1848, Louis-Napoléon won a surprising landslide victory, with 5,587,759 votes (around 75% of the total); his closest rival, Cavaignac, received only 1,474,687 votes. Louis-Napoléon had no long political career behind him and was able to depict himself as "all things to all men". The Monarchist right (supporters of either the Bourbon or Orléanist royal households) and much of the upper class supported him as the "least bad" candidate, as a man who would restore order, end the instability in France which had continued since the overthrow of the monarchy in February, and prevent a proto-communist revolution (in the vein of Friedrich Engels). A good proportion of the industrial working class, on the other hand, were won over by Louis-Napoléon's vague indications of progressive economic views. His overwhelming victory was above all due to the support of the non-politicized rural masses, to whom the name of Bonaparte meant something, as opposed to the other, little-known contenders. Louis-Napoléon's platform was the restoration of order after months of political turmoil, strong government, social consolidation, and national greatness, to which he appealed with all the credit of his name, that of France's national hero, Napoleon I, who in popular memory was credited with raising the nation to its pinnacle of military greatness and establishing social stability after the turmoil of the French Revolution. During his term as President, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte styled himself the Prince-President (Le Prince-Président).
Despite his landslide victory, Louis-Napoléon was faced with a Parliament dominated by monarchists, who saw his government only as a temporary bridge to a restoration of either the House of Bourbon or of Orléans. Louis-Napoléon governed cautiously during his first years in office, choosing his ministers from among the more "centre-right" Orleanist Parti de l'Ordre monarchists, and generally avoiding conflict with the conservative assembly. He courted Catholic support by assisting in the restoration of the Pope's temporal rule in Rome, although he tried to please secularist conservative opinion at the same time by combining this with peremptory demands that the Pope introduce liberal changes to the government of the Papal States, including appointing a liberal government and establishing the Code Napoleon there, which angered the Catholic majority in the assembly. He soon made another attempt to gain Catholic support, however, by approving the Loi Falloux in 1851, which restored a greater role for the Church in the French educational system.
In the third year of his four-year mandate, President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte asked the National Assembly for a revision of the constitution to enable the president to run for re-election, arguing that four years were not enough to implement his political and economic program fully. The Constitution of the Second Republic stated that the Presidency of the Republic was to be held for a single term of four years, with no possibility of re-election, a restriction written in the Constitution for fear that a President would abuse his power to transform the Republic into a dictatorship with a president for life. The National Assembly, dominated by monarchists who wished to restore the Bourbon dynasty, refused to amend the Constitution.
The National Assembly law placed restrictions on universal male suffrage, imposing a three-year residency requirement. It prevented a large proportion of the lower class, which was itinerant, from voting. In spite of his limited powers forcing him to acquiesce to this law, Louis-Napoléon was able to seize the opportunity and break with the Assembly and the conservative ministers opposing his projects in favour of the dispossessed. He surrounded himself with lieutenants completely loyal to him, such as Morny and Persigny, secured the support of the army, and toured the country making populist speeches condemning the assembly and presenting himself as the protector of universal male suffrage.
After months of stalemate, and using the money of his mistress, Harriet Howard, he staged a coup d'état and seized dictatorial powers on 2 December 1851, the 47th anniversary of Napoleon I's crowning as Emperor, and also the 46th anniversary of the famous Battle of Austerlitz (hence another of Louis-Napoléon's nicknames: "The Man of December", "l'homme de décembre"). The coup was later declared to have been approved by the French people in a national referendum, the fairness and legality of which has been questioned by Napoleon III's detractors ever since. The coup of 1851 definitely alienated the reactionary and careerist elements in the Assembly. Victor Hugo, who had hitherto shown support for Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, decided to go into exile after the coup, and became one of the harshest critics of Napoleon III, despite the amnesty of political opponents in 1859.
Emperor of the French
Authoritarian empire
New constitutional statutes were passed which officially maintained an elected Parliament and re-established universal male suffrage. However, the Parliament now became irrelevant as real power was completely concentrated in the hands of Louis-Napoléon and his bureaucracy. Exactly one year after the coup, on 2 December 1852, after approval by another referendum, the Second Republic was officially ended and the Empire restored, ushering in the Second French Empire. President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III. The numbering of Napoleon's reign treats Napoleon II, who never actually ruled, as a true Emperor (he had been briefly recognized as emperor from 22 June to 7 July 1814). That same year, Napoleon III began shipping political prisoners and criminals to penal colonies such as Devil's Island or (in milder cases) New Caledonia.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Napoleon_III_1863.jpg/220px-Napoleon_III_1863.jpg)
The emperor, hitherto a bachelor, began quickly to look for a wife to produce a legitimate heir. Most of the royal families of Europe were unwilling to marry into the parvenu Bonaparte family, and after rebuffs from Princess Carola of Sweden and from Queen Victoria's German niece Princess Adelheid of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, Napoleon decided to lower his sights somewhat and "marry for love", choosing the Countess of Teba, Eugénie de Montijo, a Spanish noblewoman of partial Scottish ancestry who had been brought up in Paris. In 1856, Eugenie gave birth to a legitimate son and heir, Louis Napoléon, the Prince Impérial.
On 28 April 1855 Napoleon survived an attempted assassination. On 14 January 1858 Napoleon and his wife escaped another assassination attempt, plotted by Felice Orsini.
Until about 1861, Napoleon's regime exhibited decidedly authoritarian characteristics, using press censorship to prevent the spread of opposition, manipulating elections, and depriving the Parliament of the right to free debate or any real power.
Liberal empire
In the decade of the 1860s, Napoleon III made more concessions to placate his liberal opponents. This change began by allowing free debates in Parliament and public reports of parliamentary debates, continued with the relaxation of press censorship, and culminated in the appointment of the Liberal Émile Ollivier, previously a leader of the opposition to Napoleon's regime, as (effectively) Prime Minister in 1869. This later period is described by historians as the Liberal Empire.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/L%27imp%C3%A9ratrice_Eug%C3%A9nie_en_robe_de_cour%2C_1862%2C_Franz_Xaver_Winterhalter.jpg/220px-L%27imp%C3%A9ratrice_Eug%C3%A9nie_en_robe_de_cour%2C_1862%2C_Franz_Xaver_Winterhalter.jpg)
Economic and social policy
The French economy was rapidly modernized under Napoleon III, who desired a legacy as a reform-minded social engineer. The industrialization of France during this period, in general, appealed to members of both the business interests and the working classes. Downtown Paris was renovated with the clearing of slums, the widening of streets, and the construction of parks according to Baron Haussmann's plan. Working class neighbourhoods were moved to the outskirts of Paris, where factories utilized their labour. Some of his main backers were Saint-Simonians, and these supporters described Napoleon III as the "socialist emperor." Saint-Simonians at this time founded a new type of banking institution, the Crédit Mobilier, which sold stock to the public and then used the money raised to invest in industrial enterprises in France. This sparked a period of rapid economic development.
Napoleon's Empire has been said to be the first regime in France to give "distinct priority to economic objectives". Napoleon sought to advance his belief in free trade, cheap credit, and the need to develop infrastructure as ways of ensuring progress and prosperity through government policy. Napoleon, like Haussmann and Pesigny, believed that the budget deficits that the state incurred due to its high contributions would be offset by subsequent high profits.[10] His regime has also been cited as one of the few in French history to make a concerted effort towards breaking down trade barriers.[11]
As it turned out, this time period was favourable for industrial expansion. The gold rush in California, and later Australia, increased the European money supply. In the early years of the Empire, the economy also benefited from the coming of age of those born during the baby boom of the Restoration period.[12] The steady rise of prices caused by the increase of the money supply encouraged company promotion and investment of capital. The mileage of railways in France increased from 3,000 to 16,000 kilometres during the 1850s, and this growth of railways allowed mines and factories to operate at higher rates of productivity. The 55 smaller rail lines of France were merged into 6 major lines, while new iron steamships replaced wooden ships. Between 1859 and 1869, a French company built the Suez Canal, opening a new chapter in global transportation and trade.
Algeria
Algeria had been under French rule since 1830. Compared to previous administrations, Napoleon was far more sympathetic to the native Algerians, who appealed to his romantic sentiments. Because of this he halted European migration inland, restricting them to the coastal zone. Moreover, he freed the Algerian rebel leader Abd al Qadir (who had been promised freedom on surrender but was imprisoned by the previous administration) and gave him a stipend of 150,000 francs. He also allowed Muslims to serve in the military and civil service on theoretically equal terms and allowed them to migrate to France. In addition, he gave the option of citizenship; however, for Muslims to take this option they had to accept all of the French civil code, including parts governing inheritance and marriage which might conflict with Muslim tradition, and they had to reject the competence of religious courts. This was interpreted by some Muslims as requiring them to give up parts of their religion to obtain citizenship and was resented.
One of the most influential decisions Louis Napoleon made in Algeria was to change its system of land tenure. While ostensibly well-intentioned, in effect this move destroyed the traditional system of land management and deprived many Algerians of land. While Napoleon did renounce state claims to tribal lands, he also began a process of dismantling tribal land ownership in favour of individual land ownership over the course of three generations, though this process was accelerated by later administrations. This process was corrupted by French officials sympathetic to French in Algeria who took much of the land they surveyed into public domain; in addition many tribal leaders, chosen for loyalty to the French rather than influence in their tribe, immediately sold communal land for cash.
Foreign policy
In his speech at Bordeaux in 1852, Napoleon III famously proclaimed that "The Empire means peace" ("L'Empire, c'est la paix", literally 'The Empire, it is peace'), reassuring foreign governments that the new Emperor Napoleon would not attack other European powers in order to extend the French Empire. He was, however, thoroughly determined to follow a strong foreign policy to extend France's power and glory, and warned that he would not stand by and allow another European power to threaten its neighbour. He was also a partisan of a "policy of nationalities" (literally "politique de nationalités") re-casting the map of Europe, sweeping away small principalities to create unified nation-states, even when this seemed to have little relevance to France's material interests. In this he remained influenced by the themes of his uncle's policy, as related in the Mémorial de Sainte Hélène, such as Italian unification and a united Europe. These two factors led Napoleon to a certain adventurism in foreign policy, in the opinion of some contemporaries, although this was tempered by pragmatism.
The Crimean War
Napoleon's challenge to Russia's claims to influence in the Ottoman Empire led to France's successful participation in the Crimean War (March 1854–March 1856). During this war Napoleon established a French alliance with Britain, which continued after the war's close. The defeat of Russia and the alliance with Britain gave France increased authority in Europe. This was the first war between European powers since the close of the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna, marking a breakdown of the alliance system that had maintained peace for nearly half a century. The war also effectively ended the Concert of Europe and the Quadruple alliance, or "Waterloo Coalition" that the other four powers had established. The Paris Peace Conference of 1856 represented a high-water mark for the regime in foreign affairs, when Napoleon had followed through with his ideas set out in Les Idées Napoleoniennes.[13]
Asia
In 1857, Napoleon III provided his assistance in negotiations to end the Anglo-Persian War, leading to the March 1857 Treaty of Paris.[14]
In East Asia, Napoleon took the first steps to establishing a French colonial influence in Indochina. He approved the launching of a naval expedition under Charles Rigault de Genouilly in 1858 to punish the Vietnamese for their mistreatment of French Catholic missionaries and force the court to accept a French presence in the country. An important factor in his decision was the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power by not expanding its influence in East Asia. Also, the idea that France had a civilizing mission was spreading.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Prise_de_Saigon_18_Fevrier_1859_Antoine_Morel-Fatio.jpg/220px-Prise_de_Saigon_18_Fevrier_1859_Antoine_Morel-Fatio.jpg)
This eventually led to a full-out invasion in 1861. By 1862 the war was over and Vietnam conceded three provinces in the south, called by the French Cochin-China, opened three ports to French trade, allowed free passage of French warships to Cambodia (which led to a French protectorate over Cambodia in 1863), allowed freedom of action for French missionaries and gave France a large indemnity for the cost of the war. France did not intervene, however, in the Christian-supported Vietnamese rebellion in Bac Bo, despite the urging of missionaries, or in the subsequent slaughter of thousands of Christians after the rebellion.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Looting_of_the_Yuan_Ming_Yuan_by_Anglo_French_forces_in_1860.jpg/220px-Looting_of_the_Yuan_Ming_Yuan_by_Anglo_French_forces_in_1860.jpg)
In China, France took part in the Second Opium War along with the United Kingdom, and in 1860 French troops entered Beijing. China was forced to concede more trading rights, allow freedom of navigation of the Yangtze, give full civil rights and freedom of religion to Christians, and give France and Britain a huge indemnity. This combined with the intervention in Vietnam set the stage for further French influence in China leading up to a sphere of influence over parts of southern China.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/JulesBrunet.jpg/220px-JulesBrunet.jpg)
In 1866, French naval troops attacked Korea in response to the execution of French missionaries there. Though the campaign against Korea was primarily the work of the ranking French diplomat in China and not formally authorized by the French government, its failure nevertheless resulted in the decline of French influence in the region. In 1867, a military mission to Japan played a key role in modernizing the troops of the Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, and even participated on his side against Imperial troops during the Boshin war.
Italy
As President of the Republic, Louis-Napoléon sent French troops to help restore Pope Pius IX as ruler of the Papal States in 1849 after his rule had been overthrown by the revolutionaries led by Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi who had proclaimed the Roman Republic (although as a Carbonaro he had been involved in plotting a similar revolt in the Papal States during his youth in Italy). This won him support in France from Catholics (although many remained supporters of the Bourbon monarchy at heart). Yet at the same time he had sent an emissary to negotiate with the revolutionary Italian nationalist Mazzini. The Catholic Encyclopedia observes: "In this way the difficulties of the future emperor reveal themselves from the beginning; he wished to spare the religious susceptibilities of French Catholics" and yet to support "the national susceptibilities of the Italian revolutionists -- a double aim which explains many an inconsistency" in his policy.
Napoleon remained attached to the ideal of Italian nationalism which he had embraced in his youth, and wished particularly to end Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venice (he always nursed a dislike for Austria as the incarnation of reactionary, legitimate monarchy and the great barrier to the reconstruction of Europe on nationalist lines, again traceable back to his Carbonaro days). As Emperor, Napoleon dreamed of doing this, and thus satisfying his own inclinations and winning over liberal and left-wing opinion in France (which was passionately in favour of Italian unification) while at the same time supporting the Pope in Rome and thus maintaining conservative and Catholic support in France. These contradictory desires were evident in his policy in Italy.
In April-July 1859 Napoleon made a secret deal at Plombières-les-Bains with Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont, for France to assist in expelling Austria from the Italian peninsula and bringing about a united Italy, or at least a united northern Italy, in exchange for Piedmont ceding to France Savoy and the Nice region (which was destined to become the so-called French Riviera). He went to war with Austria in 1859 and won victories at Magenta and Solferino, which resulted in the ceding of Lombardy to Piedmont by Austria (and in return received Savoy and Nice from Piedmont as promised in 1860). After this had been done, however, Napoleon decided to end French involvement in the war. This early withdrawal, however, failed to prevent central Italy, including most of the Papal states, being incorporated into the new Italian state. This led Catholics in France to turn against Napoleon. Napoleon tried to redress the damage by maintaining French troops in the city of Rome itself, which prevented the Italian government seizing it from the Pope, a policy which Napoleon's devoutly Catholic wife Eugenie fervently supported. However, Napoleon on the whole failed to win back Catholic support at home (and made moves to appeal instead to the anti-Catholic left in his domestic policy in the 1860s, most notably by appointing the anti-clerical Victor Duruy Minister for Education, who further secularised the schooling system). Nonetheless, French troops remained in Rome to protect the Pope until the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.
Grand Scheme for the Americas
Napoleon III envisioned a "Grand Scheme for the Americas," which would consist of three general points. The first involved recognition of the Confederate States of America and a military alliance with them. The second involved reintroducing monarchical rule to Latin America, in the form of Maximillian I in Mexico, and increasing French trade throughout Latin America. The third and final point involved control over Mexico with the creation of a large buffer state from the Rio Grande to the Californian Baja.[15]
Mexico
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/BattleofPuebla2.jpg/220px-BattleofPuebla2.jpg)
Another example of Napoleon's adventurism in foreign policy was the French intervention in Mexico (January 1862–March 1867). Napoleon, using as a pretext the Mexican Republic's refusal to pay its foreign debts, planned to establish a French sphere of influence in North America by creating a French-backed monarchy in Mexico, a project that was supported by Mexican conservatives who resented the Mexican Republic's laicism. The United States was unable to prevent this contravention of the Monroe Doctrine because of the American Civil War; Napoleon hoped that the Confederates would be victorious in that conflict, believing they would accept the new regime in Mexico.
But his imperial dreams would not be so easy to achieve. In Mexico the French army suffered its first military defeat in 50 years,[16][17] on the Fifth of May, 1862 in Puebla when the Mexican army under the leadership of General Ignacio Zaragoza defeated a much better-equipped French army. The defeat not only surprised the world, but served to revitalize the national spirit of Mexicans, helping to sustain a guerrilla warfare that lasted 5 years. In the end, it remained the Second Mexican Empire.
With the support of Mexican conservatives and French troops, in 1863 Napoleon installed Maximilian I of Mexico, a Habsburg prince, as emperor. Ruling President Benito Juarez and his Republican forces retreated to the countryside and fought against the French troops and the Mexican monarchists.
The combined Mexican monarchist and French forces won victories up until 1865, but then the tide began to turn against them, in part because the American Civil War had ended. The U.S. government was now able to give practical support to the Republicans, supplying them with arms and establishing a naval blockade to prevent French reinforcements arriving from Europe. Due to continued losses inflicted by the Mexican guerrillas loyal to the Republic and the threat of an American military intervention, Napoleon withdrew French troops from Mexico in 1866, which left Maximilian and the Mexican monarchists doomed to defeat in 1867. Despite Napoleon's pleas that he abdicate and leave Mexico, Maximilian refused to abandon the Mexican conservatives who had supported him, and remained alongside them until the bitter end, when he was captured by the Republicans and then shot on 19 June 1867. The complete failure of the Mexican intervention was a humiliation for Napoleon, and he was widely blamed across Europe for Maximilian's death. However, letters have since shown that Napoleon III and Leopold of Belgium both warned Maximilian not to depend on European support. Empress Eugénie has also been largely blamed for the fiasco, the implication being that she tried to meddle in affairs of state in order to get over her husband's affairs of the heart.[18]
Empress Carlota of Mexico visited Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie at Les Tuileries to request financial and military aid to rescue the agonizing empire, but her petitions were rejected. Charlotte in turn insulted the Emperor and his wife by mocking their humble origins. She subsequently declined into mental illness.
United States of America
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg/220px-Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg)
In the beginning of the 1860s, the objectives of the Emperor in foreign policy had been met: France scored several military victories in Europe and abroad, the defeat at Waterloo had been exorcised, and France was once again a significant continental military power.
During the American Civil War, Napoleon III positioned France to lead the pro-Confederate European powers. For a time, Napoleon III inched steadily toward officially recognizing the Confederacy, especially after the crash of the cotton industry and his exercise in regime-changing in Mexico. Some historians have also suggested that he was driven by a desire to keep the American states divided. Through 1862, Napoleon III entertained Confederate diplomats, raising hopes that he would unilaterally recognize the Confederacy. The Emperor, however, could do little without the support of the United Kingdom, and never officially recognized the Confederacy.
Prussia
A far more dangerous threat to Napoleon, however, was looming. France saw its dominance on the continent of Europe eroded by Prussia's crushing victory over Austria in the Austro-Prussian War in June–August 1866. Due in part to his Carbonaro past, Napoleon was unable to ally himself with Austria, despite the obvious threat that a victorious Prussia would pose to France. Napoleon felt secure in the presumption that the war with Austria would be drawn out, or would result in Austrian victory, when he agreed not to intervene in 1864.[19] Yet, having decided not to prevent the Prussian rise to power by allying against her, Napoleon also failed to take the opportunity to demand Prussian consent to French territorial expansion in return for France's neutrality. Napoleon only requested that Prussia agree to French annexation of Belgium and Luxembourg after Prussia had already defeated Austria, by which time France's neutrality was no longer needed by Prussia. This extraordinary foreign policy failure saw France gain nothing while allowing Prussia's strength to increase greatly. In part the reason for the Emperor's blunder must be laid on his deteriorating health during this period—he had begun to suffer from a bladder stone that caused him great pain, even preventing him from riding a horse.[20]
Napoleon's later attempt in 1867 to re-balance the scales by purchasing Luxembourg from its ruler, William III of the Netherlands, was thwarted by a Prussian threat of war. The Luxembourg Crisis ended with France renouncing any claim to Luxembourg in the Treaty of London (1867).
Demise
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg/340px-BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg)
Napoleon III paid the price for his failure to help defend Austria from Prussia in 1870 when, goaded by the diplomacy of the Prussian Prime Minister (and chancellor of the North German Confederation, and soon of the new German Empire) Otto von Bismarck, he began the Franco-Prussian War. This war proved disastrous for France, and was instrumental in giving birth to the German Empire, which would take France's place as the major land power in continental Western Europe until the end of World War I. In battle against Prussia in July 1870 the Emperor was captured at the Battle of Sedan (2 September) and was deposed by the forces of the Third Republic in Paris two days later.
Napoleon spent the last few years of his life in exile in England, with Eugenie and their only son. The family lived at Camden Place Chislehurst, (then in Kent), where he died on 9 January 1873. He was haunted to the end by bitter regrets and by painful memories of the battle at which he lost everything; Napoleon's last words, addressed to Dr. Henri Conneau standing by his deathbed, reportedly were, "Were you at Sedan?" ("Etiez-vous à Sedan?")[21]
The Emperor died during a multistage process to break up a bladder stone. The surgeon Sir Henry Thompson, sounded the emperor and detected a bladder stone. Lithotripsy (a technique to fragment the stone so that it could be passed) was performed on 2 January and 6 January under chloroform anaesthesia delivered by Joseph Thomas Clover.[22] The cause of death was reportedly kidney failure and septicaemia.[23] Clover and Thompson signed the post-mortem report with four other physicians; however, it has long been suspected that the operation was botched due to the arrogance of Thompson, resulting in the Emperor's untimely death.[24]
Napoleon was originally buried at St. Mary's, the Catholic Church in Chislehurst. However, after his son died in 1879 fighting in the British Army against the Zulus in South Africa, the bereaved Eugenie decided to build a monastery. The building would house monks driven out of France by the anti-clerical laws of the Third Republic, and would provide a suitable resting place for her husband and son. Thus, in 1888, the body of Napoleon III and that of his son were moved to the Imperial Crypt at St Michael's Abbey, Farnborough, Hampshire, England. Eugenie, who died many years later, in 1920, now rests there with them. It was reported in 2007 that the French Government was seeking the return of his remains to be buried in France, but that this is opposed by the monks of the abbey.[25]
Personal life
Louis Napoleon has a reputation as a womanizer, yet he referred to his behaviour in the following manner: "It is usually the man who attacks. As for me, I defend myself, and I often capitulate."[26] He had many mistresses. During his reign, it was the task of Count Felix Bacciochi, his social secretary, to arrange for trysts and to procure women for the emperor's favours. His affairs were not trivial sideshows: they distracted him from governing, affected his relationship with the empress, and diminished him in the views of the other European courts.[27] Among his numerous love affairs and mistresses were:[28]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Marguerite_Bellanger_par_Paul_Hadol.jpg/130px-Marguerite_Bellanger_par_Paul_Hadol.jpg)
- Mathilde Bonaparte, his cousin and fiancee;
- Maria Anna Schiess (1812-1880), Allensbach (Lake of Constance, Germany), mother of his son Bonaventur Karrer (1839-1921); [29]
- Alexandrine Éléonore Vergeot, laundress at the prison at Ham, mother of his sons Alexandre Louis Eugène and Louis Ernest Alexandre.[30]
- Elisa Rachel Felix, the "most famous actress in Europe";
- Harriet Howard, (1823-1865) wealthy and a major financial backer;
- Virginia Oldoini, Countess de Castiglione, (1837-1899)claimed to be the most beautiful woman of her time, sent by Camillo Cavour to influence his politics;
- Marie-Anne Waleska, a possible mistress, who was the wife of Count Alexandre Joseph Count Colonna-Walewski, his relative and foreign minister;
- Justine Marie Le Boeuf, also known as Marguerite Bellanger, actress and acrobatic dancer. Bellanger was falsely rumoured to be the illegitimate daughter of a hangman, and was the most universally loathed of the mistresses, though perhaps his favourite;[31]
- Countess Louise de Mercy-Argenteau, (1837-1890), likely a platonic relationship, author of The Last Love of an Emperor, her reminiscences of her association with the emperor.
His wife, Eugenie, resisted his advances prior to marriage. She was coached by her mother and her friend, Prosper Mérimée. "What is the road to your heart?" Napoleon demanded to know. "Through the chapel, Sire," she purportedly answered. [26] Yet, after marriage, it took not long for him to stray as Eugenie found sex with him "disgusting".[26] It is doubtful that she allowed further approaches by her husband once she had given him an heir.[27]
By his late forties, Napoleon started to suffer from numerous medical ailments, including kidney disease, bladder stones, chronic bladder and prostate infections, arthritis, gout, obesity, and the effects of chronic smoking. In 1856 Dr. Robert Ferguson, a consultant called from London, diagnosed a "nervous exhaustion" that had a "debilitating impact upon sexual ... performance"[28] and reported this also to the British government.[27]
Legacy
An important legacy of Napoleon III's reign was the rebuilding of Paris. Part of the design decisions were taken in order to reduce the ability of future revolutionaries to challenge the government by capitalizing on the small, medieval streets of Paris to form barricades. However, this should not overshadow the fact that the main reason for the complete transformation of Paris was Napoleon III's desire to modernize Paris based on what he had seen of the modernizations of London during his exile there in the 1840s. With his characteristic social approach to politics, Napoleon III desired to improve health standards and living conditions in Paris with the following goals: build a modern sewage system to improve health, develop new housing with larger apartments for the masses, create green parks all across the city to try to keep working classes away from the pubs on Sunday, etc. Large sections of the city were thus flattened down and the old winding streets were replaced with large thoroughfares and broad avenues. The rebuilding of Paris was directed by Baron Haussmann (1809–1891; Prefect of the Seine département 1853–1870). It was this rebuilding that turned Paris into the city of broad tree-lined boulevards and parks so beloved of tourists today. With Prosper Mérimée, Napoleon III continued to seek the preservation for numerous medieval buildings in France, which had been left disregarded since the French revolution (a project Mérimée had begun during the July Monarchy). With Viollet-le-Duc acting as chief architect, many buildings were saved, including some of the most famous in France: Notre Dame Cathedral, Mont Saint-Michel, Carcassonne, Vézelay Abbey, Pierrefonds, Roquetaillade castle, and others.
Napoleon III also directed the building of the French railway network, which greatly contributed to the development of the coal mining and steel industry in France, and thereby radically changing the nature of the French economy, which entered the modern age of large-scale capitalism. The French economy, the second largest in the world at the time (behind the United Kingdom), experienced a very strong growth during the reign of Napoleon III. Names such as steel tycoon Eugène Schneider or banking mogul James de Rothschild are symbols of the period. Two of France's largest banks, Société Générale and Crédit Lyonnais, still in existence today, were founded during that period. The French stock market also expanded prodigiously, with many coal mining and steel companies issuing stocks.
Although largely forgotten by later Republican generations, which only remembered the non-democratic nature of the regime, the economic successes of the Second Empire are today recognized as impressive by historians. The emperor himself, who had spent several years in exile in Victorian Lancashire, was largely influenced by the ideas of the Industrial Revolution in England, and he took particular care of the economic development of the country. He is recognized as the first ruler of France to have taken great care of the economy; previous rulers considering it secondary.
His military adventurism is sometimes considered a fatal blow to the Concert of Europe, which based itself on stability and balance of powers, whereas Napoleon III attempted to rearrange the world map to France's favour even when it involved radical and potentially revolutionary changes in politics.
A 12-pound cannon designed by France is commonly referred to as a Napoleon cannon or 12-pounder Napoleon in his honour.
Napoleon III, to this day, lacks the favourable historical reputation that Napoleon I enjoyed. Victor Hugo portrayed him as "Napoleon the Small" (Napoléon le Petit), a mere mediocrity, in contrast with Napoleon I "The Great", presented as a military and administrative genius. In France, such arch-opposition from the age's central literary figure, whose attacks on Napoleon III were obsessive and powerful, made it impossible for a very long time to assess his reign objectively. Karl Marx, in The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, famously mocked Napoleon III by saying that historical facts and personages often appear twice: "The first time as tragedy, the second time as farce."[32] Napoleon III has often been seen as an authoritarian but ineffectual leader who brought France into dubious, and ultimately disastrous, foreign military adventures.
Historians have also emphasized his attention to the fate of working classes and poor people. His book Extinction du paupérisme ("Extinction of pauperism"), which he wrote while imprisoned at the Fort of Ham in 1844, contributed greatly to his popularity among the working classes and thus his election in 1848. Throughout his reign the emperor worked to alleviate the sufferings of the poor, on occasion breaching the nineteenth-century economic orthodoxy of complete laissez-faire and using state resources or interfering in the market. Among other things, the Emperor granted the right to strike to French workers in 1864, despite intense opposition from corporate lobbies. Marxist sociologist Goran Therborn has characterized the reign of Napoleon III as the "first modern bourgeois regime": one which combined a movement of mass support with bourgeois rule, albeit through authoritarian statist means.[33] According to Therborn, such a form of rule, ossified upon the point of crisis, proves fatal to such regimes once major external crises emerge.[34]
The Emperor also ordered the creation of three large parks in Paris (Parc Monceau, Parc Montsouris, and Parc des Buttes Chaumont) with the clear intention of offering them for poor working families as an alternative to the pub (bistrot) on Sundays, much as Victoria Park in London was also built with the same social motives in mind.
Paternity
Speculation about his paternity was a favourite topic of his detractors, [27] as his parents were estranged and his mother Hortense was known to have multiple lovers. However, the parents met briefly between 23 June and 6 July 1807, nine and a half months prior to his birth, and there is no reason to assume that Louis was not his father. Additionally, Article 312 of the Napoleonic Code stated (and still states) that the father of any child born within wedlock is the mother's husband. The meeting prior to his birth meant that there was no "impossibility" of conception, and that the Article 312 designated Louis as the father of the future Napoleon III. [35]
Ancestry
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Bibliography
- Les Idees Napoleoniennes - an outline of Napoleon III's opinion of the optimal course for France, written before he became Emperor.
- History of Julius Caesar, a historical work he wrote during his reign. He drew an analogy between the politics of Julius Caesar and his own, as well as those of his uncle.
- Napoleon III wrote a number of articles on military matters (artillery), scientific issues (electromagnetism, pro and con of beet versus cane sugar), historical topics (The Stuart kings of Scotland), and on the feasibility of the Nicaragua canal. His pamphlet On the Extinction of Pauperism helped his political advancement.
- David H. Pinkney, Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1958; paperback ed., 1972) ISBN 0691007683.
See also
References
- ^ Columbia Encyclopedia, Napoleon III. Sixth Edition, 2004, Columbia University Press.
- ^ Bresler, Fenton (1999). Harper Collins. p. 20. ISBN 0002557878.
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- ^ Bresler 1999, p. 94-95 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBresler1999 (help)
- ^ Randell 1991, p. 73-74
- ^ Unknown (1855-01-01). "The Visit Deferred". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-01.
- ^ Mark Almond (1996). "The Springtime of the Peoples". Revolution: 500 Years of Struggle for Change. De Agostini. p. 96. ISBN 1899883738.
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1912
- ^ Randell 1991, p. 74
- ^ Plessis 1989, p. 62-63
- ^ Robert Tombs (May 2007). "Nicolas Sarkozy and France, May 2007: a historical perspective". History & Policy. Retrieved 2009-05-27.
- ^ Plessis 1989, p. 60-61
- ^ Markham 1975, p. 199
- ^ Immortal Steven R. Ward, p.80
- ^ Jones, Howard (2002). Crucible of Power:A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913. Lanham, MD: SR Books. p. 212. ISBN 0-8420-2916-8.
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(help) - ^ Philadelphia News Article reporting Mexican were outnumbered 2-to-1 The Bulletin: Philadelphia's Family Newspaper, "Cinco De Mayo: Join In The Celebration On The Fifth Of May", May 7, 2009. By Cheryl VanBuskirk. Retrieved June 5, 2009.
- ^ PBS Reports French Army Knew No Defeat for Almost 50 Years. Retrieved February 6, 2009.
- ^ Maximilian and Carlota by Gene Smith, ISBN 0245524185, ISBN 978-0245524189
- ^ Markham 1975, p. 203
- ^ "Bazaine and Retain". Time. 1943-07-26. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
- ^ "Napoleon III Quotes". Bartleby.com. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
- ^ Sykes WS (1960). Essays on the First Hundred Years of Anaesthesia, Vol. 2, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh. ISBN 0 443 02866 4, p. 8.
- ^ Roger L. Williams. The Mortal Napoleon III. Princeton University Press (1971), ISBN 0-691-05192-5.
- ^ Fenton Bresler. Napoleon III: A Life. Carroll & Graf Publishers (1999), ISBN 0-786-70660-0.
- ^ "French seeking emperor's corpse". 2007-12-09. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
- ^ a b c Betty Kelen. The Mistresses. Domestic Scandals of the 19th-Century Monarchs. Random Hours, New York (1966).
- ^ a b c d MFEM Bierman. Napoleon III and His Carnival Empire. St. Martin's Press, New York, 1988, ISNB 0-312-01827-4.
- ^ a b David Baguley. Napoleon III and His regime. An Extravaganza. Louisiana State University Press (2000), ISNB 0-8071-2664-1.
- ^ Wordpress.com
- ^ "Les enfants de Napoléon et Eléonore Vergeot" (in French). Société d'Histoire du Vésinet. Retrieved 2008-02-06.
- ^ Markham 1975, p. 201
- ^ Sean French (1999-08-16). "As Marx wrote, history occurs three times: first as tragedy, second as a movie, and third enacted by ducks". New Statesman. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
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(help) - ^ Goran Therborn (2008 [1978]). What Does the Ruling Class Do When It Rules?. Verso. p. 198. ISBN 9781844672103.
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(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Therborn, p. 201
- ^ Napoleon III, Georges Roux
Sources
- Thompson, J.M. Louis Napoleon and the Second Empire. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965.
- Plessis, Alain (1989), The Rise & Fall of the Second Empire 1852-1871, Paris: Cambridge University Press
- Randell, Keith (1991), Monarchy, Republic & Empire, Access to History, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0340517057
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value: checksum (help) - Markham, Felix (1975), The Bonapartes, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0297769286
- Bresler, Fenton (1999), Napoleon III: A Life, London: Harper Collins, ISBN 0002557878
Further reading
- Among the leading comprehensive histories of the Second Empire include:
- De la Gorce, Histoire du second empire, (four volumes, Paris, 1885-98), and
- Taxile Delord, Histoire du second empire, (six volumes, Paris, 1869-76).
- Bernhard Simson, Ueber die Beziehungen Napoleond III. zu Preussen und Deutschland, (Freiburg, 1882)
- Adolf Ebeling, Napoleon III. und sein Hof, (Cologne, 1891-94)
- Thirra, Napoléon III avant l'empire, (Paris, 1895)
- E. Ollivier, L'Empire libéral, (Paris, 1895-1909)
- A. L. Imbert de Saint-Amand, Napoleon III at the Height of his Power, (New York, 1900)
- T. W. Evans, Memoirs of the Second French Empire, (New York, 1905)
- Fenton Bresler, Napoleon III: A Life, (London, 1999)
- David Harvey, Paris: Capital of Modernity, (New York: Routledge, 2003)
- Marie-Clotilde-Elisabeth Louise de Riquet, comtesse de Mercy-Argenteau, The Last Love of an Emperor: reminiscences of the Comtesse Louise de Mercy-Argenteau, née Princesse de Caraman-Chimay, describing her association with the Emperor Napoleon III and the social and political part she played at the close of the Second Empire (Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, Page & Co., 1926).
- Johannes Willms, Napoleon III. Frankreichs letzter Kaiser (München, C.H.Beck, 2008), 311 S.
Movie portrayals
- Leon Ames played him in Suez (1938), although Loretta Young as Eugenie is a more prominent character.
- Claude Rains portrays him in Juarez (1939) as a weak man ready to betray Maximilian in Mexico.
- Jerome Cowan plays Napoleon III in The Song of Bernadette (1943).
- Guy Bates Post plays Louis Napoleon in Maytime (1936).
External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png)
- Napoleonic ideas. Des idées napoléniennes (1859) at archive.org
- History of Julius Caesar vol. 1 at MOA
- History of Julius Caesar vol. 2 at MOA
- Histoire de Jules César (Volume 1) in French at archive.org
- Editorial cartoons of the Second Empire
- Historic Farnborough
- Napoleon III at Find a Grave
- Place de la Revolution, Béziers & Napoleon 111
- Wikipedia articles needing copy edit from March 2008
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