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The major teachings of Christian Science include a belief that spiritual [[reality]] is the only reality and all else is [[illusion]] or "error".<ref name="frost"/> Christian Science rejects both the common [[Atonement in Christianity|Christian views of the atonement]] and the concept of [[Hell]] as a place of eternal punishment. Christian Scientists believe that sickness and disease are the result of [[fear]], [[ignorance]], or [[sin]], and should be healed through prayer or introspection.
The major teachings of Christian Science include a belief that spiritual [[reality]] is the only reality and all else is [[illusion]] or "error".<ref name="frost"/> Christian Science rejects both the common [[Atonement in Christianity|Christian views of the atonement]] and the concept of [[Hell]] as a place of eternal punishment. Christian Scientists believe that sickness and disease are the result of [[fear]], [[ignorance]], or [[sin]], and should be healed through prayer or introspection.


Christian science is a religion or [[pseudoscience]] that says that sickness can be healed through the exclusive use of prayer rather than medicine. It rejects science as illusory.<ref>{{cite journal
Christian science is [[pseudoscience]] that claims that sickness can be healed through the exclusive use of prayer rather than medicine. It rejects science as illusory, while attempting to disguise itself as science.<ref>{{cite journal
| title=The Corrosion of the American Mind (reviewing ''The Age of American Unreason'' by Susan Jacoby)
| title=The Corrosion of the American Mind (reviewing ''The Age of American Unreason'' by Susan Jacoby)
| first=Wendy
| first=Wendy
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| page=92
| page=92
| quote=Many Americans [...] had too little education to distinguish between real scientists and those who peddled theories in the guise of science
| quote=Many Americans [...] had too little education to distinguish between real scientists and those who peddled theories in the guise of science
}}</ref><ref name=tseop/>{{rp|317}} Deaths have occurred among practitioners and children of practioners. <ref name="Asser1998"/> <ref name=Novo/>{{rp|50}}<ref name="Young2001"/>
}}</ref><ref name=tseop/>{{rp|317}} Its precepts cause preventable death among its followers, and among the children of its followers upon whom those precepts are imposed; <ref name="Asser1998"/> it adversely affects public health: outbreaks of preventable disease and a number of deaths have occurred due to a lack of vaccination; <ref name=Novo/>{{rp|50}} and the Christian science church actively attempts to control its public image and position in law through media manipulation and political lobbying.<ref name="Young2001"/>



==Theology==
==Theology==

Revision as of 17:50, 16 December 2012

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Christian Science was developed by Mary Baker Eddy.
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Christian Science is a system of religious thought and practice developed by Mary Baker Eddy based on her reading of the Bible and explained in her work Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures.[1] In it, Eddy describes the teachings of Jesus as a complete and coherent divine science.[2]: 275, 473–474  Its adherents may be, but are not required to be, members of the main church, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, a branch church, or both. Its central texts are the Bible and Science and Health.

The major teachings of Christian Science include a belief that spiritual reality is the only reality and all else is illusion or "error".[3] Christian Science rejects both the common Christian views of the atonement and the concept of Hell as a place of eternal punishment. Christian Scientists believe that sickness and disease are the result of fear, ignorance, or sin, and should be healed through prayer or introspection.

Christian science is pseudoscience that claims that sickness can be healed through the exclusive use of prayer rather than medicine. It rejects science as illusory, while attempting to disguise itself as science.[4][5]: 317  Its precepts cause preventable death among its followers, and among the children of its followers upon whom those precepts are imposed; [6] it adversely affects public health: outbreaks of preventable disease and a number of deaths have occurred due to a lack of vaccination; [7]: 50  and the Christian science church actively attempts to control its public image and position in law through media manipulation and political lobbying.[8]


Theology

The theology of Christian Science is explained in its textbook, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, by Mary Baker Eddy. The Bible and Science and Health, along with other writings by Eddy are the central texts of Christian Science.[3] Christian Science has been described as a form of philosophical idealism.[9] Eddy regarded Christian Science not as a philosophy, but as a theology, and considered the development of Christian Science to be an important process that resulted from embracing continuous divine revelation.[10]: 27 

Christian Science's focus on spiritual healing led to some measure of stir in the theological realm at first. During the religion's early days of rapid growth, the teachings were frequently attacked from the pulpit and press.[11][12][13]

Eddy described the basic religious points of Christian Science in the Tenets of Christian Science.[2]: 497  Adherents of Christian Science believe that Genesis contains two interleaved stories of creation, one spiritual, the other material [2]: 501–557  and hold that the reality of all that God made is spiritual, and not material. They see this reality as the only reality and all else as illusion or, in Christian Science terminology, "error".[3] They believe that the recognition and understanding of the spiritual nature of reality allows for healing through prayer.[2]: 1–17 [non-primary source needed]

Relationship with mainstream Christianity

Christian Science has historically been regarded by most Protestants as heretical rather than as a new denomination.[14]

Christian scientists revere Christ but do not consider him a Messiah who died on the cross to redeem mankind. Whereas in mainstream Christianity Jesus' miracles are seen as supernatural, followers of Christian Science do not regard them as miraculous, but as exemplifications of the healing power that stems from the correction of mental error.[15]

Medicine and science

Christian Science is a pseudoscience.[16][17][18] Christian Science is framed as being in opposition to science, but uses the appearance of being a science to give itself extra legitimacy. [19] It, traditionally, regards science as not important and an illusion, although they have recently started to base arguments on appeals to physics.[5]: 317 : 557 [20]: 8  Eddy regarded Christian Science much like science, except she viewed its creation as a spiritual rather than a physical discovery, with herself as the divinely chosen discover.[10]: 28  The text by Eddy, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures is promoted by the Church as "a pioneer in the science of the mind body connection". Eddy viewed herself as similar to Copernicus.[5]: 317  She believed that Christian Science healing is available to all people now as much as in biblical times.[3] Christian Scientists see themselves as practising a well-defined process with a proven track record.[21][22]

Many Christian Scientists use prayer as their first choice for treatment over medical treatments such as drugs and surgery.[23]: 302  They believe that healing only occurs through complete submission to God.[23]: 302  In Christian Science it is not forbidden to seek medical attention, but they believe that those who do have turned their back on their beliefs. Eddy put this as "if we trust matter, we distrust spirit".[24]: 75  Exceptions described by Eddy include going to the dentist, fixing broken limbs, and basic surgical procedures.[24]: 75  The official stance of the Church of Christ, Scientist is against diagnosing illness.[24]: 76  However, numerous claims of healings of near- and far-sightedness, dental problems and broken bones have been reported in the periodicals published by the Church.[25]

Eddy wrote that she learned the Christian Science method of healing as she recovered from an injury in 1866 after reading a Bible passage describing one of Jesus' healings. Eddy's healing principles relied on some of the concepts of homoeopathy.[26] From 1862 Eddy was a student of the homoeopath and spiritualist Phineas Quimby[5]: 317  after he helped her with a spinal problem. She believed that Quimby had cured her because "the truth which he establishes in the patient cures him",[27]: 90  From 1863 at the latest, Quimby referred to his theories as "Science of Health and Happiness", "Science of Christ", and "Science"[27]: 87  and in "Aristocracy and Democracy" he referred to it as "Christian Science".[27]: 87  For several years she defended him publicly and regularly talked with him, and worked to perform healings based on his methods.[10]: 106  Eventually, in 1872 she distinguished her methods by the name of Christian Science.[10]: 106  Later, she stated that Quimby had not been a major influence[10]: 108 [27]: 88  and that Quimby healed by animal magnetism, something which she had denied earlier in her public writings.[27]: 90, 91 

Increased morbidity

Epidemiological studies show higher mortality rates among Christian Scientists than those using conventional medicine, and there is a lack of non-anecdotal evidence for the efficacy of Christian Science.[28] A study compared the morbidity of graduates of the Christian Science school Principia College to graduates of the University of Kansas in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences.[29] The study found that there was a much higher death rate in the Christian Science group.[28][29] A further study reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention[28] compared graduates of the Christian Science school Principia College to graduates of a Seventh-day Adventist college (Loma Linda University). The Christian Science school's cohort had a higher overall mortality rate than the comparison cohort (though the dietary habits of Seventh-day Adventists may make them less susceptible to some diseases than the bulk of the population, possibly biasing that result).[28]

Outbreaks of preventable diseases, for which there are known vaccines, can occur due to intentional non-vaccination. Outbreaks which stem from a refusal to vaccinate typically occur amongst those exempt from vaccination for religious reasons, such as Christian Science.[6][30] Due to Christian Science beliefs, Christian Scientists are less likely to self-report illness to the authorities.[7] Since Christian Science members avoid vaccination, they can harbour disease after encountering measles.[7]

The CDC reported on measles outbreaks in communities of Christian Scientists: one in 1994[31] and with two separate outbreaks in 1985. One outbreak was in a college, in which three people died, and the other was in a camp.[7][32] 90% of those infected with measles were exempt from vaccination on religious grounds.[7] These cases help inspire continuing controversy over religious exemption to vaccination requirements.[33]

Health of children

See also: Commonwealth v. Twitchell

With respect to children, two important rights are in apparent opposition: the rights of children to medical care and the rights of parents to make decisions about the well-being of their children. The position that constitutional protections of freedom of religion allow parents to choose the method of healing which best benefits their children contradicts court rulings which state that children cannot, on the basis of parental belief, be denied what is regarded as essential health care.[34][original research?] In a number of nationally publicized cases in the early 1990s, prosecutors charged parents belonging to the Christian Science church with murder or manslaughter after their children died of likely curable ailments without being medically treated. The best-known of these was the Twitchell Case in Massachusetts, in which parents David and Ginger Twitchell were convicted in 1990 of involuntary manslaughter in the death of their two-year-old son Robyn, who succumbed to a bowel obstruction.[35]

In a study encompassing Christian Science, Asser & Swan (1998) describe how of 172 children who died from medical neglect because of the religious beliefs of their parents, 28 were from a Christian Science background.[6]: 626  They conclude that it is a matter of public concern that the exclusive use of faith healing causes preventable child fatalities and associated suffering. They note that in the United Kingdom and Canada members are advised to obey laws requiring medical care of sick children.[6]

In the United States, the constitutional guarantee of protection of religious practice from intrusion by government has been used by Christian Scientists and other religious groups to seek exemption from legal requirements regarding medical treatment of children in more than three-quarters of the states. There are statutes in 44 states which allow that children are not to be deemed neglected because they are receiving treatment by spiritual means according to the tenets of a recognized religion. While these exemptions take different forms and interpretations in different states, the effect has been to limit the ability to prosecute parents for medical neglect of children as a result of religious practice.[36]

Young (2001) relates how children that die from preventable disease suffer more than victims of "traditional" child abuse, yet in the United States the parents responsible can escape criminalization through being religiously motivated. He describes how this circumstance has arisen: the Christian Science church has successfully lobbied for favorable language in the Code of Federal Regulations, and the church's many "committees on publication" (COPs) monitor and influence media coverage and opinion though such activities as the coordinated writing of letters to the editor, and political lobbying.[8]

Social views

Christian Scientists generally defend the separation of church and state as affording a protection for civil freedom and religion. However, Eddy insisted on obedience by Christian Scientists to state laws in regard to health care.[citation needed] Progressive for her time, she was in favor of women's rights, and rejected the "corporeal punishment" of children.[37]: 51  While she generally steered clear of politics per se, she stated her support of the Monroe Doctrine[37]: 282  as well as her opposition to imperialism and economic monopoly.[37]: 129  The Christian Science Monitor, which she founded, has traditionally been a staunch defender of civil liberties and individual freedom.

Homosexuality

Historically Christian Science doctrine has treated homosexuality as a "deviation from moral law" and required members or employees to "heal" themselves.[38] The church has been described as being inhospitable to people having same-sex sexuality.[39] In 1979 a group of LGBT church members formed Emergence International, a group within the church advocating change.[40] According to Bruce Stores, an advocate within the group, the church has quietly moved in recent times from its position of "blatant discrimination" and now treats sexual minorities with a degree of acceptance,[41] although it may be that most church members are unaware of this claimed shift in attitude.[40]

In 1985 a lesbian employee was fired from a position on the Christian Science Monitor. In legal action that followed the church lawyer argued that "Christian Science doctrine provides that homosexuality is immoral," and that the employee was fired "because of her immorality, or more specifically because of her refusal to seek healing."[42] The courts upheld the church's right to fire her on religious grounds, on the basis that "churches are entitled to insist on undivided loyalty from [...] employees."[38]

Church of Christ, Scientist

The Church of Christ, Scientist was founded in 1879 in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, by Eddy. The first building constructed as a Christian Science Church was erected in 1886 in Oconto, Wisconsin and still stands at the corner of Main Street and Chicago Street.[27]: 364 [43][44][45]: 580–582  The original edifice of the Mother Church was completed some years later on Saturday, December 29, 1894, just in time for the first service held there the following day.[45]: 289  Eddy was the author of the book Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, the Christian Science textbook and which, along with the Bible, serve as the permanent "impersonal pastor" of the church. The church was founded "to commemorate the word and works of [Christ Jesus]" and "reinstate primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing". Sunday services are held throughout the year and weekly testimony meetings are held on Wednesday evenings, where following brief readings from the Bible and the Christian Science textbook, those in attendance are invited to give testimonies of healing brought about through Christian Science prayer. Christian Science metaphysics teach that God is Spirit and cites the first chapter of Genesis as the true story of creation, where in the King James Bible, "man" is both "male and female", created "in the image and likeness" of God. The story of Adam and Eve is held to be an allegory. Healing on this basis is accomplished without material means and is the traditional bedrock of the church. In the early decades of the 20th century, churches sprang up in communities around the world, though in the last several decades of that century, there was a marked decline in membership, except in Africa, where there has been growth. Several controversies have rocked the church and remain unresolved, according to dissidents.[46] Christian Scientists are usually, though not always or necessarily, members of The First Church of Christ, Scientist (also called The Mother Church) in Boston, Massachusetts.

Church members tend to be white, well-educated and comfortably-off.[47] Membership is often passed on within families; the church recruits comparatively few new followers from other sources. Membership numbers peaked in the middle of the twentieth century, and have been in decline since then. In 2000, the number of members was estimated to be well under 100,000.[48]

Some Christian Scientists, after class instruction, become Christian Science Practitioners and start public practices. Practitioners devote all of their time to healing, and normally charge for their services, but may not usually take legal action against patients for non-payment of fees.[49]: 46  They are obliged to keep their patients' confidences and are instructed to make concessions in the case of indigent patients.[49]: 46  There is no physical manipulation, or laying on of hands in a Christian Science healing treatment.[50][unreliable source?]

The church has at times been accused of attempting to silence dissenters[51] by methods such as delisting them as practitioners in the Christian Science Journal, or excommunicating them. Some dissenting groups continue to solicit support among current members of the church.[who?]

Practices

Christian Scientists celebrate the sacraments of baptism and Eucharist in an entirely non-material way. "Our baptism," wrote Eddy, "is purification from all error...Our Eucharist is spiritual communion with the one God. Our bread, 'which cometh down from heaven,' is Truth. Our cup is the cross. Our wine the inspiration of Love, the draught the Master drank and commended to his followers". (Science and Health, page 35) There are no rituals in the Christian Science church, but at the communion service, held twice a year, those in attendance are invited to kneel for silent prayer, followed by the audible repetition of the Lord's Prayer. The communion service is not held at The Mother Church.[52] Marriage is not a sacrament of the Christian Science church, but the church's by-laws require a legal, religious ceremony for marriage: "If a Christian Scientist is to be married, the ceremony shall be performed by a clergyman who is legally authorized."[53]

Christian Scientists may take an intensive two-week "Primary" class from an authorized Christian Science teacher.[54] Those who wish to become "Journal-listed" (accredited) practitioners, devoting themselves full-time to the public practice of healing, must first have Primary class instruction. When they have a proven record of healing, they may submit their names for publication in the directory of practitioners and teachers in the Christian Science Journal. A practitioner who has been listed for at least three years' may apply for "Normal" class instruction, given just once every three years.[55][56] Those who receive a certificate are authorized to teach.[57] Both Primary and Normal classes are based on the Bible and the writings of Mary Baker Eddy. The Primary class focuses on the chapter, "Recapitulation" in Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. This chapter uses the Socratic method of teaching and contains the "Scientific Statement of Being". The "Normal" class focuses on the platform of Christian Science, contained on pages 330-340 of Science and Health.[58]

Broadcasting

In October 1991, after a series of conflicts over the boundaries between Christian Science teachings and his journalistic independence, John Hart resigned.[59] The Monitor Channel went off the air in June 1992. Most of the other operations closed in well under a decade. Public accounts in both the mainstream and trade media reported that the church lost approximately $250 million on these ventures.

The hundreds of millions lost on broadcasting brought the church to the brink of bankruptcy. However, with the 1991 publication of The Destiny of The Mother Church by the late Bliss Knapp, the church secured a $90 million bequest from the Knapp trust. The book, which had been kept unpublished following a decision by the ruling board in 1948, claimed that Eddy was virtually a second Christ rather than the mere mortal leader she claimed to be.[60] The trust dictated that the book be published as "Authorized Literature," with neither modification nor comment. Historically, the church had censured Knapp for deviating at several points from Eddy's teaching, and had refused to publish the work. The church's archivist, fired in anticipation of the book's publication, wrote to branch churches to inform them of the book's history. Many Christian Scientists thought the book violated the church's by-laws, and the editors of the church's religious periodicals and several other church employees resigned in protest. Alternate beneficiaries subsequently sued to contest the church's claim it had complied fully with the will's terms, and the church ultimately received only half of the original sum.[61][62]

The fallout of the broadcasting debacle also sparked a minor revolt among some prominent church members. In late 1993, a group of Christian Scientists filed suit against the Board of Directors, alleging a willful disregard for the Manual of the Mother Church in its financial dealings. The suit was thrown out by the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts in 1997, but a lingering discontent with the church's financial matters persists to this day.[63]

Membership decline and financial setbacks

In spite of its early meteoric rise, church membership has declined sharply over the past eight decades, according to the church's former treasurer, J. Edward Odegaard.[64] Though the Church is prohibited by the Manual from publishing membership figures, the number of branch churches in the United States has fallen steadily since World War II. Dr. Stephen Barrett has reported that since 1971, the number of practitioners and teachers in the United States listed in the Christian Science Journal has fallen from nearly 5,000 to just over 300 and the number of churches in the United States has fallen from about 1,800 to about 900.[65] In 2009, for the first time in church history, more new members came from Africa than the United States.[66]

Christian Science Monitor, Journal and Sentinel

The entrance to the Christian Science Monitor offices.

The Christian Science Monitor is a well-respected newspaper run from the headquarters of the First Church of Christ, Scientist. It was founded by Eddy under the slogan: "To injure no man, but to bless all mankind". At its maximum it had a circulation of 200,000, but this had contracted to 60,000 by 2005. Printed paper copies stopped in October 2008, where it was making a loss of $18.9 million, and it is now available online. It was not made with the goal of conversion to Christian Science, but for providing news coverage.[40]

The Christian Science church publishes a weekly periodical called the Christian Science Sentinel, a monthly publication called the Christian Science Journal, a non-English publication called The Herald of Christian Science. A project is currently under way to make all back issues of the Christian Science publications (Journal, Sentinel and Herald) available on-line.[67] The Christian Science Journal and the Christian Science Sentinel include comments from individuals claiming to have had been healed through the use of Christian Science prayer.[68] Testimonies of healings reported in Christian Science publications are sometimes drawn from cases in which a doctor confirmed the initial condition and the subsequent healing, according to the testifier.[25] Typically these testimonies, which generally include nothing but a vague description, do not have doctors making the initial diagnosis.[68] The verification process requires the contact information for three people (one a member of "The Mother Church") who "have either witnessed the healing or can vouch for its accuracy based on their knowledge of [the testifier],"[68] according to the Christian Science Publishing Society website.[69]

In 2005 the Boston Globe reported that the church was considering consolidating Boston operations into fewer buildings and leasing out space in buildings it owned. Church official Philip G. Davis noted that the administration and Colonnade buildings had not been fully used for many years and that vacancy increased after staff reductions in 2004. The church posted an $8 million financial loss in fiscal 2003, and in 2004 cut 125 jobs, a quarter of the staff, at the Christian Science Monitor. Conversely, Davis said that "the financial situation right now is excellent" and stated that the church was not facing financial problems.[70]

See also

References

  1. ^
    • The World Book Encyclopedia. p. 406. ISBN 0716600765.
    • Websters Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary. G. & C. Merrium Co. p. 148. ISBN 877792097. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
    • "The Church Of Christ, Scientist (Christian Science)". Religioustolerance.org. Retrieved 2012-12-15.
  2. ^ a b c d Eddy, Mary Baker (1934 [1875]). Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. United States of America: The Christian Science Board of Directors. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ a b c d J. William Frost, "Part V: Christianity and Culture in America," Christianity: A Social and Cultural History, 2nd Edition, (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1998), 473.
  4. ^ Kaminer, Wendy (2008). "The Corrosion of the American Mind (reviewing The Age of American Unreason by Susan Jacoby)". The Wilson Quarterly. 32 (2): 92. Many Americans [...] had too little education to distinguish between real scientists and those who peddled theories in the guise of science
  5. ^ a b c d Shermer, Michael (2002). The Skeptic encyclopedia of pseudoscience. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576076539.
  6. ^ a b c d Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1542/peds.101.4.625, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1542/peds.101.4.625 instead.
  7. ^ a b c d e "Measles outbreaks in religious groups exempt from immunization laws". 103. 1988: 49–54. PMC 1477942. Retrieved 20 September 2012. {{cite journal}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ a b Young, Beth Rapp (2001). "Defending Child Medical Neglect: Christian Science Persuasive Rhetoric". Rhetoric Review. 20 (3/4). Taylor & Francis: 268–292.
  9. ^ Rescher, Nicholas (1995). "Idealism," in The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 356.
  10. ^ a b c d e Gottschalk, Stephen (1973). The emergence of Christian science in American religious life (2nd pr. ed.). Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. P. ISBN 0520023080.
  11. ^ Rev. Irving C. Tomlinson. Twelve Years with Mary Baker Eddy (1945)
  12. ^ Edward Kimball. "Facts and Fictions about Christian Science." Lecture delivered April 8, 1898, from Lectures and Articles on Christian Science (1921)
  13. ^ Christian Science and Legislation. (1909) Chapter: Editorial Comments (a collection of quotes from magazines and newspapers around the US).
  14. ^ Klassen, P. E. (2009). "Textual Healing: Mainstream Protestants and the Therapeutic Text, 1900–1925". Church History. 75 (4): 809. doi:10.1017/S0009640700111849. Christian Science was not considered by mainstream Protestants to be a development within the fold, but a heresy thought up by a disturbed woman
  15. ^ Eugene V. Gallagher; W. Michael Ashcraft (2006). Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-275-98717-6. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
  16. ^ James Randi: Commentary Science Pseudoscience: the Differences
  17. ^ Joe Nickell: Christian Science Maneuvering
  18. ^ Derksen, A.A (1993). Journal for General Philosophy of Science / Zeitschrift für allgemeine. 24 (1). Springer: 17–42. Neither are typical pseudo-sciences like astrology, Bach-kabbalistics and Christian Science. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  19. ^ Schrager, Cynthia D. (December). "Both Sides of the Veil: Race, Science, and Mysticism in W. E. B. Du Bois". American Quarterly. 48 (4). Spiritualism and related movements such as Christian Science both adopted the trappings of science to legitimize themselves and functioned as oppositional discourses with contradictory results. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
  20. ^ Extra source on legitimacy: Lewis, edited by James R. (2009). Scientology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195331493. Thus any religion claiming to be scientific drew on the prestige and perceived legitimacy of natural science. Religions such as Christian Science, Science of Mind, and Scientology claim just that {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  21. ^ Robert Peel. "Spiritual Healing in a Scientific Age (1987) ISBN 978-0-06-066484-8
  22. ^ A Century of Christian Science Healing (1966) ISBN 978-0-87510-067-8
  23. ^ a b Carroll, Robert Todd (2003). The skeptic's dictionary : a collection of strange beliefs, amusing deceptions, and dangerous delusions. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-27242-6.
  24. ^ a b c May (1999). Praying for a cure : when medical and religious practices conflict. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0847692620. {{cite book}}: More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help)
  25. ^ a b Peel, Robert E. (1987). Spiritual Healing in a Scientific Age. Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-066484-3.
  26. ^ The Oxford companion to United States history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. 2006. ISBN 0195082095. {{cite book}}: |first= missing |last= (help)
  27. ^ a b c d e f Stouck (1993). The life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the history of Christian science (1. Bison Book pr. ed.). Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 080326349X. {{cite book}}: More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help)
  28. ^ a b c d Simpson, W. F. (August 23, 1991). "Comparative Mortality of Two College Groups, 1945–1983". MMWR Weekly. 40 (33): 579–582. Retrieved 2009-01-21. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  29. ^ a b Simpson, WF (1989 Sep 22-29). "Comparative longevity in a college cohort of Christian Scientists". JAMA : the journal of the American Medical Association. 262 (12): 1657–8. PMID 2769921. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  30. ^ Sugerman, D. E. (22 March 2010). "Measles Outbreak in a Highly Vaccinated Population, San Diego, 2008: Role of the Intentionally Undervaccinated". PEDIATRICS. 125 (4): 747–755. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-1653. Outbreaks attributable to vaccine refusal tended to be observed among religious groups with objections to vaccination (eg, Christian Scientists18 and the Amish19). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (July 1, 1994). "Outbreak of Measles Among Christian Science Students – Missouri and Illinois, 1994".
  32. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (March 15, 1985). "Epidemiologic Notes and Reports Multiple Measles Outbreaks on College Campuses – Ohio, Massachusetts, Illinois".
  33. ^ First Amendment Center. "Vaccination and Religious Exemptions".[dead link‍]
  34. ^ See Prince v. Massachusetts, 321 US 158 (1944) and Jehovah's Witnesses v. Washington King County Hospital, 278 F Supp 488 (Washington DC 1967), affirmed per curiam 390 US 598 (1968).
  35. ^ Margolick, David (August 6, 1990). "In Child Deaths, a Test for Christian Science; Faith vs. the Law; A special report". The New York Times. p. A2. ISSN 1649296. {{cite news}}: Check |issn= value (help)[dead link‍]
  36. ^ Fraser, Caroline (1995-04). "Suffering Children and the Christian Science Church". The Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved 2009-01-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  37. ^ a b c Mary Baker Eddy, Miscellaneous Writings, in Prose Works other than Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, Boston, Trustees Under the Will of Mary Baker G. Eddy, 1925
  38. ^ a b "Court in Massachusetts upholds Christian Science Monitor's dismissal of a lesbian". New York Times. 22 August, 1985. Church doctrine holds that homosexuality is a "deviation from moral law" and requires members or employees to "heal" themselves. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  39. ^ Jeffrey S. Siker (2007). Homosexuality And Religion: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-313-33088-9. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
  40. ^ a b c Linda K. Fuller (31 August 2011). The Christian Science Monitor: An Evolving Experiment in Journalism. ABC-CLIO. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-313-37994-9. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
  41. ^ Stores, Bruce (2004). Christian Science: Its Encounter with Lesbian/Gay America. iUniverse. p. xv. ISBN 978-0595326204.
  42. ^ Stores, p. 114
  43. ^ Hall, George E. 2009. A History of Oconto. 2nd ed., edited by Duane Ebert and Pamela Ann Loberger. Oconto, WI: Oconto County Historical Society, p. 130.
  44. ^ Chiat, Marilyn Joyce Segal. 1997. America's Religious Architecture: Sacred Places for Every Community. New York: John Wiley, p. 133.
  45. ^ a b Beasley, Norman. 1952. The Cross and the Crown, the History of Christian Science. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce,
  46. ^ The Church Of Christ, Scientist (Christian Science)
  47. ^ Paul A. Djupe; Laura R. Olson (2003). Encyclopedia of American Religion and Politics. Infobase Publishing. p. 96. ISBN 978-1-4381-3020-0. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
  48. ^ Djupe & Olson, p. 97
  49. ^ a b Eddy, Mary Baker (1895). Manual of the Mother Church. United States of America: Trustees under the Will of Mary Baker G. Eddy.
  50. ^ Eddy, Mary Baker (1925 [1883]). Rudimental Divine Science. United States of America: The Christian Science Board of Directors. pp. 11 and 12. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  51. ^ Steve Stecklow, "Church's Media Moves At Issue A Burgeoning Network Sparks Dissent" Philadelphia Inquirer (October 14, 1991). Retrieved March 17, 2012
  52. ^ Church Manual, page 61, Article XVIII, Section 1.
  53. ^ Church Manual, page 49, Article IX, Section 1.
  54. ^ Church Manual, page 92, Article XXX, Section 8.
  55. ^ Church Manual, page 89, Article XXIX, Section 2.
  56. ^ Church Manual, page 84, Article XXVi, Section 4.
  57. ^ Church Manual, page 85, Article XXVI, Section 9.
  58. ^ Church Manual, page 86, Article XXVII, Section 3.
  59. ^ "Ex-anchor cites interference at Monitor" The Baltimore Sun September 2, 1992. Accessed Feb. 27, 2010
  60. ^ Ostling, R. N.; Ajemian, R. (1991). "Tumult in the reading rooms". Time. 138 (15): 57.
  61. ^ Peter Steinfels. "Fiscal and Spiritual Rifts Shake Christian Scientists" New York Times (February 29, 1992)
  62. ^ Press release Stanford University. December 16, 1993
  63. ^ "Appellate Brief No. SJC-07156" (PDF). COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS SUPREME JUDICIAL COURT. Retrieved 2011-08-20.
  64. ^ The Christian Science Journal November, 2010
  65. ^ Christian Science Statistics: Practitioners, Teachers, and Churches in the United States
  66. ^ Christa Case Bryant, "Africa contributes biggest share of new members to Christian Science church" Christian Science Monitor (June 9, 2009). Retrieved March 16, 2012
  67. ^ Sparkman, John, "JSH-Online Progress", The Christian Science Journal, February 2012, p. 19
  68. ^ a b c "Some Thoughts about Faith Healing". Quackwatch. Retrieved 8 October 2012. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  69. ^ Christian Science Sentinel. "Testimony Guidelines".
  70. ^ Boston Globe October 13, 2005 p. A1
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