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[[Image:Rajputs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Organised martial traditions were studied as part of the ''[[dharma]]'' by the warrior [[Kshatriya]] in [[Hinduism]] ]]
[[Image:Rajputs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Organised martial traditions were studied as part of the ''[[dharma]]'' by the warrior [[Kshatriya]] in [[Hinduism]] ]]


Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of [[Malla-yuddha]] (more commonly known as ''Mallayuddha''), a form of combat [[wrestling]] codified into four forms,<ref>[http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html Mallayuddha]</ref> which is described in the ancient [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] as the fighting style of warriors such as [[Bhima]]. The art is supposed to have gained maximum prominence in [[History of India|ancient India]] at the time when the oral tradition of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' epic was conceived. The ''Mahabharata'' was compiled in textual form around the 5th century BC, while the epic's setting has a historical precedent in [[Vedic civilization|Vedic India]], where the [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru kingdom]] was the center of political power in the late [[2nd millennium BC|2nd]] and early [[1st millennium BC|1st]] millennia BCE. It is believed that Malla-yuddha was regarded as a prominent martial art in that era. [[Press up#Hindu press up|Hindu press up]]s used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.<ref name=Svinth/>
Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of [[Malla-yuddha]] (more commonly known as ''Mallayuddha''), a form of combat [[wrestling]] codified into four forms,<ref>[http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html Mallayuddha]</ref> which is described in the ancient [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] as the fighting style of warriors such as [[Bhima]]. The art is supposed to have gained maximum prominence in [[History of India|ancient India]] at the time when the oral tradition of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' epic was conceived. The ''Mahabharata'' was compiled in textual form around the 5th century BC, while the epic's setting has a historical precedent in [[Vedic civilization|Vedic India]], where the [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru kingdom]] was the center of political power in the late [[2nd millennium BC|2nd]] and early [[1st millennium BC|1st]] millennia BCE. It is believed that Malla-yuddha was regarded as a prominent martial art in that era.


⚫
The ''Mahabharata'' describes a prolonged battle between [[Arjuna]] and [[Shiva|Siva]] using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.<ref name=Zarrilli1/> Stories describing [[Krishna]] from around the 6th century BC report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used [[knee strike]]s to the chest, [[punch]]es to the head, hair pulling, and [[Chokehold|strangleholds]].<ref name=Svinth/> Records from around 500 BC describe martial arts which include combat techniques in which a fighter seizes or reverses holds on an opponent's joints, strikes with his fists, or grapples and throws his adversary. These three activities developed in conjunction with, as well as independantly of, each other.<ref name=Borkowski>Cezar Borkowski (1998). ''Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts''.</ref> [[Press up#Hindu press up|Hindu press up]]s used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.<ref name=Svinth/>
⚫
References to martial arts are found in early [[Buddhist texts]]. In the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' (Chapter 14), [[Gautama Buddha]] (563-483 BC) refers to a [[boxing]] art while speaking to [[Manjusri]].<ref name=Haines>Bruce A. Haines (1995). ''Karate's History and Traditions'' (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804819475.</ref> The ''Lotus Sutra'' also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws,<ref>[http://www.uta.edu/student_orgs/umaa/htmlDocs/history.html History of Taekwondo.] University Martial Arts Association.</ref> and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called ''Nara''.<ref>Tim Steinwachs. [http://home.maine.rr.com/poiuyt/history.html History of Karate.]</ref> Another early Buddhist [[sutra]] ''Hongyo-kyo'' describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince [[Nanda (Buddhism)|Nanda]] and his cousin [[Devadatta]].<ref name=Haines/> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and [[archery|archer]] before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/>


⚫
References to martial arts are found in early [[Buddhist texts]]. In the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' (Chapter 14), [[Gautama Buddha]] (563-483 BC) refers to a [[boxing]] art while speaking to [[Manjusri]].<ref name=Haines>Bruce A. Haines (1995). ''Karate's History and Traditions'' (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804819475.</ref> The ''Lotus Sutra'' also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws,<ref>[http://www.uta.edu/student_orgs/umaa/htmlDocs/history.html History of Taekwondo.] University Martial Arts Association.</ref> and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called ''Nara''.<ref>Tim Steinwachs. [http://home.maine.rr.com/poiuyt/history.html History of Karate.]</ref> Another early Buddhist [[sutra]] ''Hongyo-kyo'' describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince [[Nanda (Buddhism)|Nanda]] and his cousin [[Devadatta]].<ref name=Haines/> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and [[archery|archer]] before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/>
⚫
Stories describing the life of [[Krishna]] from around the 6th century BC report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matcheswhere he used [[knee strike]]s to the chest, [[punch]]es to the head, hair pulling, and [[Chokehold|strangleholds]].<ref name=Svinth/> Records from around 500 BC describe martial arts which include combat techniques in which a fighter seizes or reverses holds on an opponent's joints, strikes with his fists, or grapples and throws his adversary. These three activities developed in conjunction with, as well as independantly of, each other.<ref name=Borkowski>Cezar Borkowski (1998). ''Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts''.</ref>


Around the 3rd century BC, [[Patanjali]] wrote the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various [[mudra]] finger movements were taught in [[Yogacara]] Buddhism. These [[Yoga]] elements, as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.<ref name=Svinth/>
Around the 3rd century BC, [[Patanjali]] wrote the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various [[mudra]] finger movements were taught in [[Yogacara]] Buddhism. These [[Yoga]] elements, as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.<ref name=Svinth/>

Revision as of 23:38, 29 November 2006

The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of martial arts, including Kalarippayattu, Pehlwani, Vajra Mushti, Gatka, and Dravidian martial arts.

File:Balarama9.jpg
Martial arts have been associated with avatars, such as Balarama, in ancient Hindu mythological texts

Introduction

File:Matemple.jpg
Statues in an ancient hindu temple, showing warriors in combat

Ancient India was one of the centres of various martial traditions and practices. Most of the centers were in the Southern region, including present-day Kerala and the ancient Kingdom of Tamilakam. Some of the older traditions include organised martial systems as practiced by the Kshatriya caste of Hinduism, these systems include armed and unarmed combat and aspects such as meditation, conditioning etc. Many ancient hindu temples have statues of deities and warriors in various postures related to combat.

Martial arts of the Indian subcontinent are diverse in nature and have origins of different times from various different ethnic groups. A number of ancient and sophisticated Dravidian martial arts were developed in South India, including Kuttu Varisai (empty hand combat), Varma Kalai (the art of vital points) in Tamil Nadu, Kalari Payattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (Hit And Block), in Kerala.

History

The origins of Indian martial arts can be traced back to the the martial science of Dhanur Veda, mentioned in various ancient Indian literature, including Vedic literature dating back to the 2nd millenium BC, such as the Rig Veda (6.75.2), Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, and epic literature such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Dhanur Veda encompassed all the traditional fighting arts, but particularly the science of archery. The ancient Vishnu Purana text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.[1] Though some descriptions of Dhanur Veda are found in Vedic and epic literature, and in other ancient texts such as the Vishnu Purana and the Siva Dhanur Veda of the Gupta Empire, the earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the Agni Purana (c. 8th century),[2] which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference to an earlier sutra on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.[3] It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.[4] The former included the bow and arrow, the sword, spear, noose, armour, iron dart, club, battle axe, discus, and the trident.[1] The latter included wrestling, knee strikes, and punching and kicking methods.[4]

The earliest evidence of the concept of vital pressure points also dates back to the Rig Veda where Indra is recorded to have defeated Vritra by attacking his vital pressure points (marman) with his vajra.[5] References are also found in the Atharva Veda.[6] With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.[2] Sushruta (c. 6th century BC) identified and defined 107 vital points of the human body in his Sushruta Samhita.[7] Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.[4] Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma Kalai and Marma Adi.[4]

Organised martial traditions were studied as part of the dharma by the warrior Kshatriya in Hinduism

Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of Malla-yuddha (more commonly known as Mallayuddha), a form of combat wrestling codified into four forms,[8] which is described in the ancient Indian epics as the fighting style of warriors such as Bhima. The art is supposed to have gained maximum prominence in ancient India at the time when the oral tradition of the Mahabharata epic was conceived. The Mahabharata was compiled in textual form around the 5th century BC, while the epic's setting has a historical precedent in Vedic India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power in the late 2nd and early 1st millennia BCE. It is believed that Malla-yuddha was regarded as a prominent martial art in that era.

The Mahabharata describes a prolonged battle between Arjuna and Siva using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.[1] Stories describing Krishna from around the 6th century BC report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.[4] Records from around 500 BC describe martial arts which include combat techniques in which a fighter seizes or reverses holds on an opponent's joints, strikes with his fists, or grapples and throws his adversary. These three activities developed in conjunction with, as well as independantly of, each other.[9] Hindu press ups used by Indian wrestlers also date back to this era.[4]

References to martial arts are found in early Buddhist texts. In the Lotus Sutra (Chapter 14), Gautama Buddha (563-483 BC) refers to a boxing art while speaking to Manjusri.[10] The Lotus Sutra also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws,[11] and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara.[12] Another early Buddhist sutra Hongyo-kyo describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta.[10] Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and archer before becoming the Buddha.[4]

Around the 3rd century BC, Patanjali wrote the Yoga Sutras, which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These Yoga elements, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.[4]

Ancient Dravidian martial arts, and the word "kalari", are mentioned in Sangam literature from the 2nd century BCE. The Akananuru and Purananuru describe the martial arts of ancient Tamilakkam, including forms of one-to-one combat, and the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam. The word "kalari" appears in the Puram (verses 225, 237, 245, 356) and Akam (verses 34, 231, 293) to describe to both a battlefield and combat arena. The word "kalari tatt" denoted a martial feat, while "kalari kozhai" meant a coward in war.[13]

The martial art of Vajra Mushti was described in the Buddharata Sutra, written down by the 5th century,[9] but based on earlier material used by Kshatriya warrior caste.[10] Indian military accounts of the Gupta Empire (c. 240-480) identified over 130 different classes of weapons. The Kama Sutra written by Vātsyāyana at the time suggested that women should regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and bow and arrow." Around this time, Tantric philosophers develop important metaphysical concepts such as kundalini energy, chakras, and mantras.[4]

Around 630, King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of Varma Adi,[4] a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing,[2] and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the Agni Purana.[4]

Martial arts were not exclusive to the Kshatriya warrior caste. The 8th century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at salad and ghatika educational institutions, where Brahmin students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from South India, Rajasthan and Bengal) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."[1]

Influence of Indian martial arts

File:Ricksongraciechoke.jpg
Rickson Gracie during a Yoga session
Further information: Foreign influence on Chinese martial arts
See also: Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection

The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the Indosphere, those regions outside India influenced by Indian culture. Examples of such arts include Bando,[14] Silat,[15][16] Escrima,[17] and Muay Thai.[18][19][20]

The Indian wrestling form of Pehlwani has influenced both catch wrestling and it's derivative system of shoot wrestling. Karl Istaz travelled to India to train with Indian wrestlers and incorporated their training methods in shoot wrestling, wrestlers like Yoshiaki Fujiwara[21] have applied these methods to train shoot wrestlers around the world.[22][23]

India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of Jogo do Pau. Tamil immigrants to Malaysia brought with them the staff fighting art Silambam.[24][25]

K. Voroshilov travelled to India, under the employ of NKVD physical training center, "Dinamo", to observe its native matial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries — including India — formed the basis of the Russian martial art Sambo.[26][27]

In addition, modern martial arts such as Brazilian Jiu Jitsu credit India to be the origin of their fighting principles. [28][29][30][31][32]

Indian martial arts under colonialism

Indian martial arts declined as Western colonialism disrupted the livelihoods of India's martial castes. Rajputs who sought service with rulers as their ancestors had done found their sources of patronage limited by British restrictions; unable to find employment in their traditional line of work, some joined the Pindari.[33]

Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century.[34] More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.[35] The British Raj eventually banned kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.[36]

The resurgence of public interest in kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule.[37]

List of Indian martial arts

File:Staff clip.gif
Stick fencing in Silambam Nillaikalakki
  • In the television series, Xena: Warrior Princess, Xena is shown carrying the "chakram of darkness". Xena also gets a new chakram in the second episode of the 5th seson called Chakram
Xena, holding her Chakram
File:Sadhu03 cvr(c).jpg
James Jenson, from The Sadhu comic book, in front of the hindu goddess Kali

See Also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Phillip B. Zarrilli. A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms, Paradigms of Practice and Power in a South Indian Martial Art. University of Exeter.
  2. ^ a b c Phillip B. Zarrilli. The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions, Paradigms of Practice and Power in a South Indian Martial Art. University of Exeter.
  3. ^ P. C. Chakravarti (1972). The art of warfare in ancient India. Delhi.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports, Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences.
  5. ^ Mariana Fedorova (1990). Die Marmantheorie in der klassischen indischen Medizin.
  6. ^ Subhash Ranade (1993). Natural Healing Through Ayurveda (p. 161). Passage Press. Utah USA.
  7. ^ G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita.
  8. ^ Mallayuddha
  9. ^ a b Cezar Borkowski (1998). Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts.
  10. ^ a b c Bruce A. Haines (1995). Karate's History and Traditions (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804819475.
  11. ^ History of Taekwondo. University Martial Arts Association.
  12. ^ Tim Steinwachs. History of Karate.
  13. ^ Suresh, P. R. (2005). Kalari Payatte - The martial art of Kerala.
  14. ^ Women in martial arts by Carol A. Wiley
  15. ^ The Malay Art Of Self-defense: Silat Seni Gayong by Sheikh Shamsuddin
  16. ^ Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia by Donn F. Draeger
  17. ^ Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima by Mark V. Wiley
  18. ^ B. J. Erwin de Castro, R. Rhodes (1993). Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the Martial Arts Phenomenon, Christian Research Journal 5.
  19. ^ Alex Doss (2006). Thamizhar Martial Arts. San Diego State University.
  20. ^ The Ramakien. United States Muay Thai Association.
  21. ^ [1]
  22. ^ [2] My Christmas with Karl Gotch by Jake Shannon
  23. ^ [3] Victory Goes over a bridge
  24. ^ [4] Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution
  25. ^ [5] Jogo Do Pau
  26. ^ [6] Sambo:Soviet System of Sport and Combat
  27. ^ [7] The History of Sombo
  28. ^ [8] History of Jiu-Jitsu
  29. ^ John B. Will. Vajramushti: The Ancient Vale Tudo of India.
  30. ^ [9] The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu at Gracie Barra
  31. ^ [10] The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation
  32. ^ [11] The beginning: Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
  33. ^ Bayly, C.A. (2002) [1988]. Indian Society and the making of the British Empire (Sixth printing ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 103. ISBN 0521386500.
  34. ^ Zarrilli, P. (1992). "To heal and/or harm: The vital spots (marmmam/varmam) in two south Indian martial traditions--Part I: Focus on Kerala's kalarippayattu". Journal of Asian Martial Arts. 1 (1).
  35. ^ Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1998). When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  36. ^ Luijendijk, D.H. (2005). Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art. Boulder: Paladin Press. ISBN 1581604807.
  37. ^ Zarrilli 1998
  38. ^ [12]
  39. ^ [13]
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