Puppet state

A puppet state is a state that is nominally independent, but in reality, under the control of another power.

"Puppet state" is a term of political criticism, used to denigrate a current government which is perceived as unduly dependent upon an outside power. It implies that government's lack of legitimacy, in the view of those using the term. The term is closely associated with the state of Manchukuo, established under Japanese auspices in Manchuria in 1932. Although the term might reasonably be used to describe a significant number of states in the past, only Manchukuo is routinely designated as a "puppet state".

In fact many puppet states (notably Panama, Cuba (both created under US auspices), Croatia and Slovakia (under Nazi Germany domination) and even, in some ways, Manchukuo (under the Japanese), have depended on the mobilization of unrequited national aspirations.

Under these definitions, a puppet state either lacks democratic legitimacy (because its policies are determined elsewhere) or it lacks sovereign legality (because it was created in breach of the rules of sovereign succession). For these reason, the term "puppet state" can be useful if applied only in the modern world, that is, the world in which states are presumed to be a reflection of the will of their people, and in which war has been outlawed as means of formal territorial acquisition. For subordinate relations in pre-modern times, the terms vassal state and tributary state are preferable.

The concept of a "puppet state" implies some deliberate attempt to deceive. Either the citizens of the alleged puppet state or the international community are assumed to be deceived into believing that the puppet state is really independent when it is not. This presumption of deception makes the term a partisan one, prone to semantic disputes. Each side believes that it sees a reality which the other side cannot, or refuses to, see.

The two main difficulties in deciding whether a particular regime constitutes a puppet state are (a) the difficulty of observing the process by which the external power transmits its will to the puppet and (b) the fact that those who act as puppets may see themselves sincerely as following their national interest.

See also client state, satellite state and protectorate.

The first puppet states

The first puppet state, in the sense of a state which claimed popular legitimacy but which was significantly dependent on an external power, was the Batavian Republic, established in the Netherlands under French revolutionary protection.

The first puppet states, in the sense of new states whose creation was made possible by the intervention of a foreign power, were the Italian republics created in the late 18th and early 19th centuries with the assistance and encouragement of Napoleonic France. See French client republics.

Cuba and Panama separated from the sovereign power (respectively Spain and Colombia) by United States intervention were examples of states which began as puppets doing the will of an intervening hegemon but which developed into truly independent states.

In 1895, Japan detached Korea from its tributary relationship with China, giving it formal independence which was in reality only a prelude to Japanese annexation.

Other entities sometimes considered puppet states are:

• The Latin Empire (1204 to 1261) established in the aftermath of the dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire by the Crusaders and controlled by France.
• France from 1419 to 1436 during the Hundred Years' War, with John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford as the French regent in Paris and English control of over 40% of the area and the majority of the population of France. The English crown considered this a dual monarchy, but France south of the Loire except for Gascony never recognized it as legal.
• Aztec Empire from 1525 to 1526 under Diego Velázquez Tlacotzin who was selected and controlled by conquistador Hernán Cortés.
• From 1541 to 1699, Transylvania's only guarantee of independence was the paying of an annual tribute to the Ottoman Empire.
• Bengal under Mir Jafar and Mir Qasim from the overthrow of its Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 until 1764. It was tributary to Great Britain, which made it the first British colony of substantial area on the Indian subcontinent after defeating the Bengalis at the Battle of Buxar.
• French client republics (1792 to 1815), controlled by the French First Republic and the First French Empire became client kingdoms with members of the Bonaparte family as nominal heads of state.
• Congress Poland (1815 to 1915), controlled by Imperial Russia.
• The Republic of Nicaragua (1856–1857), under the presidency of American adventurer and soldier of fortune William Walker. Walker attempted to conquer several Latin American countries in the mid-19th century. The Walker regime in Nicaragua was controlled by Wall Street tycoon Cornelius Vanderbilt.
• The Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867), under Maximilian I of Mexico installed by Napoleon III of France. Maximilian I was installed by Napoleon III 's Second French Empire after the French intervention in Mexico.
• Honduras (1876-1891), under the de facto control of Guatemala.
• The Republic of Hawaii (1894 to 1898), controlled by American businessman Sanford B. Dole, who became president, manipulated control of its parliament, had Queen Lili'uokalani placed under house arrest, and paved the way for annexation to the United States of America.
• The United Baltic Duchy (1918-1919), controlled by the German Empire at the very end of World War I.

Puppet states of Imperial Japan

During Japan's imperial period, and particularly during the Pacific War (parts of which are considered the Pacific theatre of World War II), Japan established a number of states that historians have come to consider puppet régimes. See also Axis powers of World War II

Nominally sovereign states

• Manchukuo (1932–1945), set up in Manchuria under the leadership of the last Chinese Emperor, Puyi.
• Provisional Government of China December 14, 1937 - March 30, 1940 - Incorporated into the Nanjing Nationalist Government on March 30, 1940.
• Nanjing Nationalist Government ( March 30, 1940–1945) - Established in Nanjing by collaborationists under Wang Jingwei.
• State of Burma (Burma, 1942–1945) - Head of state Ba Maw.
• Second Philippine Republic (1943–1945) – Collaborationist government of José P. Laurel.
• The Provisional Government of Free India (1943–1945), set up in Singapore in October 1943 by Subhash Chandra Bose and alleged by the Allies to have been a puppet state, it was in charge of Indian expatriates and military personnel in Japanese Southeast Asia. The government was established with prospective control of Indian teritorry to fall to the offensive to India. Of the territory of post-independence India, the government took charge of Kohima (after it fell to Japanese-INA offensive), parts of Manipur that fell to both the Japanese 15th Army as well as to the INA, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Empire of Vietnam (March-August 1945) – Emperor Bảo Đại's regime with Tran Trong Kim as prime minister after proclaiming independence from France.
• Kingdom of Cambodia (Cambodia, March-August 1945) – King Norodom Sihanouk's regime with Son Ngoc Thanh as Prime Minister after proclaiming independence from France.
• Kingdom of Laos – King Sisavang Vong's régime after proclaiming independence from France.

Other plans

Japan had plans for other puppet states.

The projected White Russian state in Outer Manchuria was a Japanese puppet régime that never got beyond the planning stages. In addition to the Japanese, the Germans supported the formation of this state. In 1943, the plans for a White Russian state died for good after the Battle for Stalingrad.

In 1945, as the Second World War drew to a close, Japan planned to grant puppet independence to Indonesia. These plans ended when the Japanese surrendered on 15 August 1945.

Puppet states of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy

Several European governments under the domination of Nazi Germany and Italy during World War II have been described as puppet régimes. The formal means of control in occupied Europe varied greatly. These régimes fall into several categories. See also Axis powers of World War II

Existing states in (forced) alliance with Germany and Italy

• Romania (1940–1944) - The "National Legionary State" government of General (later Marshal) Ion Antonescu and Horia Sima's Iron Guard was a German puppet régime. The Iron Guard was a ultra-nationalist anti-Semitic Fascist movement.
• Bulgaria (1940–1944) - The pro-Nazi régimes of Prime Minister Bogdan Filov and Prime Minister Dobri Bozhilov were German puppet régimes.
• Hungary (1944–1945) - The pro-Nazi régime of Prime Minister Ferenc Szálasi supported by the Arrow Cross Party was a German puppet régime. Arrow Cross was a pro-German, anti-Semitic Fascist party. Szálasi was installed by the Germans after Hitler launched Operation Panzerfaust and had the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, removed and placed under house arrest. Horthy was forced to abdicate in favor of Szálasi. Szálasi fought on even after Budapest fell and Hungary was completely over-run.

Existing states under German or Italian rule

• Albania under Italy (1939–1943) and Albania under Nazi Germany (1943–1944) - The Kingdom of Albania was an Italian protectorate and puppet régime. Italy invaded Albania in 1939 and ended the rule of King Zog I. Zog was exiled and King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy added King of Albania to his title. King Victor Emmanuel and Shefqet Bej Verlaci, Albanian Prime Minister and Head of State, controlled the Italian protectorate. Shefqet Bej Verlaci was replaced as Prime Minister and Head of State by Mustafa Merlika Kruja on 3 December 1941. The Germans occupied Albania when Italy quit the war in 1943 and Ibrahim Bej Biçaku, Mehdi Bej Frashëri, and Rexhep Bej Mitrovica became successive Prime Minister under the Nazis.
• France (1940–1944) - The Vichy French régime of Philippe Pétain had limited autonomy from 1940 to 1942. The Vichy government controlled many of France's colonies and enjoyed limited international recognition. For example, the United States of America granted Vichy France full diplomatic recognition. In 1942, the Germans occupied the portion of France administered by the Vichy government and ended much of the international legitimacy the government had.

New states formed to reflect national aspirations

• Slovak Republic under the Slovak People's Party (1939–1945) - The Slovak Republic was a German puppet régime. The Slovak People's Party was a quasi-fascist nationalist movement associated with the Roman Catholic Church. Monsignor Jozef Tiso became the Nazis' quisling in a nominally independent Slovakia.
• Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) - The Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska or NDH) was a German and Italian puppet régime. On paper, the NDH was a kingdom under King Tomislav II of the House of Savoy (The Duke of Split). But Tomislav II was only a figurehead in Croatia who never exercised any real power. In reality, "Greater Croatia" was ruled by Leader (Poglavnik) Ante Pavelić and the Ustasha, who ran their own programme of ethnic cleansing of Serbs (independent of the Nazis) , Jews and Gypsies.

The Italian Social Republic

• Italian Social Republic (1943–1945, known also as the Republic of Salò) - General Pietro Badoglio and King Victor Emmanuel III withdrew Italy from the Axis Powers and moved the government in southern Italy, already conquered by the Allies. In response, the Germans occupied northern Italy and founded the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) with Italian dictator Benito Mussolini as its "Head of State" and "Minister of Foreign Affairs". While the RSI government had some trappings of an independent state, it was completely dependent on Germany. When directed to do so, Mussolini provided Germany with Italian citizens to work as forced laborers.

Puppet states of the Soviet Union before 1939

The Soviet Union had several puppet states in the 1920s.

• The Far Eastern Republic (1920-1922) Was sometimes described as a puppet state of the Soviet Union. But its identity as a "state" was ambiguous at best and it was more of a "buffer" than a puppet state.
• Tuvinian People's Republic, also Tannu Tuva (1921-1944) Achieved independence from China by means of local nationalist revolutions only to come under the domination of the Soviet Union in the 1920s. In 1944, Tannu Tuva was made an integral part of the Soviet Union.

Puppet states of the Soviet Union after 1939

• Finnish Democratic Republic (1939–1940) - The Finnish Democratic Republic (Suomen Kansanvaltainen Tasavalta) was a short-lived Soviet puppet regime in those minor parts of Finland that were occupied by the Soviet Union during the Winter War.
• Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940) in June 1940 the Republic of Estonia occupied by USSR, July 1940 puppet government proclaims Soviet power, , August 1940 Estonia annexed by USSR.
• Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940) in June 1940 the Republic of Latvia occupied by USSR, July 1940 puppet government proclaims Soviet power, , August 1940 Estonia annexed by USSR.
• Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940) in June 1940 the Republic of Lithuania occupied by USSR, July 1940 puppet government proclaims Soviet power, , August 1940 Lithuania annexed by USSR.
• Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1949) - The Second East Turkestan Republic, usually known simply as the East Turkistan Republic (ETR), was a short-lived Soviet-backed separatist republic which existed in the 1940s in what is now the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China.

As Soviet forces prevailed over the German Army on the Eastern Front during the Second World War, the Soviet Union supported the creation of communist governments in Eastern Europe. Specifically, the People's Republics in Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Poland were dominated by the Soviet Union. While all of these People's Republics did not "officially" take power until after World War II ended, they all have roots in pro-Communist war-time governments. For example, Bulgaria's pro-Communist Fatherland Front seized power in Bulgaria on September 9, 1944. The Fatherland Front government was Soviet dominated and the direct predecessor of the People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990). On the other hand, keeping with the Bulgarian example, it could be argued that the People's Republic of Bulgaria under Prime Minister Georgi Dimitrov (1946–1949) was far from being a Soviet puppet. On yet another hand, an argument for co-belligerence status could also be made for these states.

• Poland (1944–1947) - The war-time governments under the Polish Committee of National Liberation, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, and the Provisional Government of National Unity.
• Bulgaria (1944–1946) - The war-time pro-Communist Fatherland Front government headed by Kimon Georgiev (Zveno).
• Hungary (1944–1945) - The war-time government of Prime Minister Béla Miklós.
• Romania (1945–1946) - The war-time National Front (FND) government under Premier Petru Groza. The FND was led by the Romanian Communist Party (PCR).
• Czechoslovakia (1945–1948) - In April 1945, the war-time pro-Communist National Front government of the Czechosolvak Third Republic was formed.
• Azerbaijan People's Government (1945–1946) - Short-lived, Soviet-backed client state in northern Iran

Iraq and Iran during World War II

The Axis demand for oil and the concern of the Allies that Germany would look to the oil-rich Middle East for a solution, caused the invasion of Iraq by the United Kingdom and the invasion of Iran by the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. Pro-Axis governments in both Iraq and Iran were removed and replaced with Allied-dominated governments.

• Kingdom of Iraq (1941–1947) - Iraq was important to the UK because of its position on the route to India. Iraq also could provide strategic oil reserves. But, due to the UK's weakness early in the war, Iraq backed away from the pre-war Anglo-Iraqi Alliance. In April 1941, the Hashemite monarchy in Iraq was over-thrown and there was a pro-German coup under Rashid Ali. The Rashid Ali regime began negotiations with the Axis powers and military aid was quickly sent to Mosul via Vichy French-controlled Syria. The Germans provided a squadron of twin engine fighters and a squadron of medium bombers. The Italians provided a squadron of biplane fighters. In mid-April 1941, the Anglo-Iraqi War began and troops of the 10th Indian Infantry Division invaded Iraq. By May, they and other Commonwealth forces in Iraq forced the pro-German government to capitualate and caused Rashid Ali to flee the country. The Hashemite monarchy (King Ghazi and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said) was restored. The UK then forced Iraq to declare war on the Axis in 1942. Commonwealth forces remained in Iraq until October 26, 1947.
• Iran (1941–1946) - German workers in Iran caused the United Kingdom (UK) and the Soviet Union to question Iran's neutrality. In addition, Iran's geographical position was important to the Allies. So, in August 1941, the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran was launched (Operation Countenance). In September 1941, Reza Shah Pahlavi was forced to abdicate his throne. He was replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi was willing to declare war on the Axis powers. By January of 1942, the UK and the Soviet Union agreed to end their occupation of Iran six months after the end of the war.

Satellite states

Main article: Satellite state

At the conclusion of the Second World War, there was an understanding between the Allied powers that each state would temporarily occupy the territories they captured during the war before ultimately re-establishing the nations of occupied Europe. For the most part, the territories occupied by the United States and United Kingdom became democracies with market economies aligned with the United States, while the territories occupied by the Soviet Union became communist states aligned with the Soviet Union. This extended so far as to lead to the division of Germany, in which the Soviet occupation sector became East Germany while the United States, United Kingdom, and French occupation sectors became West Germany.

Eastern European members of the Warsaw Pact, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and East Germany, were Soviet satellite states centrally controlled by Moscow. While Soviet leaders claimed that the Warsaw Pact nations were equals entering into a mutual alliance, the reality was different and decisions were often enforced by Soviet Union with threats of or use of force. For example when Polish communist leaders tried to elect Władysław Gomułka as First Secretary they were issued an ultimatum by Soviet military that occupied Poland ordering them to withdraw election of Gomulka for the First Secretary or be crushed by Soviet tanks [1].

Prague Spring in 1968 led to an invasion of Czechoslovakia by the other Warsaw Pact states. As a rationale for this action, the Soviet Union expressed the Brezhnev Doctrine, which stated that it was the duty of all socialist states to protect any socialist state from falling to capitalism. The Western bloc interpreted the Brezhnev Doctrine as an expression of Moscow's authority over other communist states.

American political analysts and the American public believed so strongly that Eastern Europe's communist states were Soviet puppet states that Gerald Ford's insistence during a debate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election campaign that Eastern Europe was not dominated by the Soviet Union was considered a major gaffe, leading his opponent, Jimmy Carter, to reply that he would like to see Ford convince Czech-Americans and Polish-Americans that their countries did not live under Soviet domination. Similarly, in 1987, U.S. President Ronald Reagan, in a speech at the Berlin Wall, challenged not the East German leader, but rather Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to "Tear down this wall".

Gorbachev ultimately renounced the Brezhnev Doctrine, jokingly calling his policy the "Sinatra Doctrine" after the song "My Way" because of its explicit allowance of Eastern European countries to decide their own internal affairs. Within only a couple years of Gorbachev's abandonment of the Brezhnev Doctrine, Eastern Europe's communist regimes all fell and their states sought better relations and integration with the West, abandoning ties to Soviet Union.

South Korea and Vietnam

During the 1950–1953 Korean War, South Korea was accused of being an American puppet state by North Korea and its allies. At the same time, the United States alleged that North Korea was a Soviet puppet state. The de facto end of the war and decades of intervening time have distanced these allegations to most, but to this date, North Korea's government reiterates the accusation about South Korea, citing law that places the South Korean army under American command in time of war.

In 1955, the Vietnamese Catholic leader Ngo Dinh Diem, encouraged by the United States, declared the creation of the South Vietnam (RVN) in the southern part of Vietnam. The northern part of the country was then largely under control of the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). This declaration involved a breach of the 1954 Geneva Accords which had provided for elections to re-unite the country, but the RVN claimed a right to exist on the basis of sovereign succession from the previous, French sponsored State of Vietnam. The creation of the RVN reflected fears that the elections would deliver a communist victory, perhaps because of electoral manipulation or intimidation in the north.

Many people in the south were afraid of the likely consequences of communist rule, but the RVN was also a tool of the United States in its struggle to 'contain' communism. The RVN hosted vast numbers of US troops and its governments were closely aligned with United States policy. The Vietnam War, better called the Second Indochina War, is sometimes described as a proxy war in which both sides were puppets of the competing great powers in the Cold War. Many observers, however, see one side as the puppet and the other side as genuinely nationalist. Some observers describe both sides as representing nationalist alternatives. The Paris Peace Accords were preceded by months of intensive negotiations over whether the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam (Viet Cong) should be treated as an independent party or as a puppet of North Vietnam.

Decolonization

In some cases, the process of decolonization has been managed by the decolonizing power to create a neo-colony, that is a nominally independent state whose economy and politics permits continued foreign domination. Neo-colonies are not normally considered puppet states.

South Africa's 'Bantustans'

During the 1970s and 1980s, four ethnic bantustans, some of which were extremely fragmented, were carved out of South Africa and given nominal sovereignty. Two (Ciskei and Transkei) were for the Xhosa people; and one each for the Tswana people (Bophuthatswana) and for the Venda people (Venda Republic).

The principal purpose of these states was to remove the Xhosa, Tswana and Venda peoples from South African citizenship (and so to provide grounds for denying them democratic rights). All four were reincorporated into South Africa in 1994.

After the Cold War

The War on Terrorism

In more recent times, the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq have led to largely U.S.-led regime change efforts in these two nations, fostering accusations among critics of the administration that the governments established under U.S. occupation are American puppet states. In a January 2008 interview, Afghan President Hamid Karzai accepted to being labelled America's "puppet" in return for U.S. assistance, stating, "if I am called a puppet because we are grateful to America, then let that be my nickname."

Some Russians also accused Georgia of being a US puppet regime, while Hezbollah is accusing Lebanon of being a puppet at the hands of the Bush administration.

See also

• Banana republic
• Buffer state
• Co-belligerence
• Tributary state
• Vassal state
• Protectorate
• Satellite state