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[[Category:Mangifera]]
[[Category:Mangifera]]
[[Category:Fruit]]
[[Category:Fruit]]
[[Category:Flora of Angola]]
[[Category:Fruits of Angola]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]

Revision as of 17:38, 4 September 2008

This article is about the fruit. For other meanings of the word, see mango (disambiguation).

Mango
Immature Black Mango fruit
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Phylum:
Magnoliophyta
Class:
Magnoliopsida
Order:
Sapindales
Family:
Anacardiaceae
Genus:
Mangifera

Species

More than 50 species; see listing

Mangoes belong to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The mango is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.[1] Cultivated in many tropical regions and distributed widely in the world, mango is one of the most popularly exploited fruits for food, juice, flavor, fragrance and color. Its leaves are ritually used as floral decorations at weddings and religious ceremonies.

Etymology

The name mango is said to be from the Kodagu mange, the Malayalam manga, or the Tamil mangai, and was loaned into Portuguese in the early 16th century, and from Portuguese passed into English. The ending in -o appears in English and is of unclear origin.[2]

Species

Riped Banganpalli mangoes from Guntur, India

There are many species of mango, including:

Description

Mango flowers

Mango trees (Mangifera indica) reach 35-40 m in height, with a crown radius of 10 m. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15-35 cm long and 6-16 cm broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10-40 cm long; each flower is small and white with five petals 5-10 mm long, with a mild sweet odor suggestive of lily of the valley. After the flowers finish, the fruit takes from three to six months to ripen.

The ripe fruit is variable in size (right image) and color, such as yellow, orange, red or purple. Often red on the side facing the sun and yellow where shaded, a mango that is green usually indicates unripe fruit, but this depends on the cultivar. When ripe, the unpeeled fruit gives off a distinctive resinous sweet smell. In its center is a single flat oblong seed that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface, depending on cultivar. Inside the seed coat 1-2 mm thick is a thin lining covering a single embryo, 4-7 cm long, 3-4 cm wide, 1 cm thick.

Reole mangoes from Venezuela ("bocao" variety) with a pear to compare sizes

Cultivation and uses

A popular mango nicknamed "King of mangoes", the Alphonso is grown mainly in India[3][4]

Mangoes have been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years[5] and reached East Asia between the 5th-4th century BC. By the 10th century AD, they were transported to East Africa[5] and subsequently introduced to Brazil, West Indies and Mexico, where climate allows its appropriate growth.[5] The 14th century Muslim traveler, Ibn Battuta, reported it at Mogadishu.[6]

Mango is now widely cultivated as a fruit tree in frost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates like that of the Indian subcontinent, with more than 51.1% of world's mangoes being cultivated in India alone.[7][8] Other regions where mango is cultivated include North, South and Central America, the Caribbean, south and central Africa, Australia, China, and Southeast Asia. It is easily cultivated yielding more than 1,000 cultivars, ranging from the "turpentine mango" (named for its strong taste of turpentine, which according to the Oxford Companion to Food some varieties actually contain) to the huevos de toro (literally "eggs of the bull", a euphemism for "bull's testicles", referring to the shape and size).

Although a popular fruit around the world, many mango farmers receive a low price for their produce. Though India is largest producer of mangoes in the world, it accounts for less than one percent of the global mango trade because Indian farmers have poor direct access to foreign trade.[9] This has led to mangoes being available as a fair trade item in some countries. Dwarf or semi-dwarf varieties, such as Nam Doc Mai, yield fruit in containers.

Mango tree with flowers

The pigment euxanthin, usually known as Indian yellow, is often described as having been produced from the urine of cows fed on mango leaves; the practice is described as having been outlawed in 1908 after having been found to cause malnutrition in the cows.[10] However, Victoria Finlay[11] has shown that these descriptions of the pigment's origin all rely on a single anecdotal source, that there exist no other records of the pigment being produced in such a fashion, and that Indian legal records do not mention any such practice ever being outlawed. As such, the viability of the pigment's production from mango-leaf-fed cows is unknown.

Diseases

Main article: List of mango diseases

Food

The fruit flesh of a ripe mango is very sweet, with a unique taste. The texture of the flesh varies markedly between different cultivars, some having a soft, pulpy texture similar to an over-ripe plum, while others having firmer flesh like a cantaloupe or avocado. In some cultivars, the flesh has a fibrous texture. Mangoes are juicy with a sweet taste and high water content making them refreshing to eat.

File:Mango Powder.JPG
A pack of amchur (or dry mango) powder in India.

Mangoes are widely used in chutney, which in the West is often very sweet, but in the Indian subcontinent is usually made with sour, unripe mangoes and hot chilis or limes. In India, ripe mango is often cut into thin layers, desiccated, folded, and then cut and sold as bars that are very chewy. These bars, known as amavat or halva in Hindi, are similar to dried guava fruit bars available in Colombia. In many parts of India, people eat squeezed mango juice (called Ras), the thickness of which depends on the type of mango, with variety of bread items and is part of the meal rather than a dessert. Unripe mangoes (which are extremely sour) are eaten with salt, and in regions where food is hotter, with salt and chili.

In Kerala, ripe mango (also ripe jackfruit) is used as a vegetable in the preparation of a dish called mambazha kaalan.

The fruit is also widely used as a key ingredient in a variety of cereal products, in particular muesli and oat granola.

In the Philippines, unripe mango is eaten with bagoong. Dried strips of sweet, ripe mango are also popular, with those from Cebu exported worldwide. Guimaras island is also a major producer of a particularly delicious mango.

Freshly harvested mangoes and bananas at a fruit stand on the island of Maui, Hawaii

In Mexico, mango is used to make juices, smoothies, ice cream, fruit bars, raspados, aguas frescas, pies and sweet chili sauce, or mixed with chamoy, a sweet and spicy chili paste. It is popular on a stick or also as a main ingredient in fresh fruit combinations.

Pieces of mango can be mashed and used as a topping on ice cream or blended with milk and ice as milkshakes. In Thailand and other South East Asian countries, sweet glutinous rice is flavored with coconut then served with sliced mango on top as a dessert.

In other parts of South-east Asia, mangoes are very popular pickled with fish sauce and rice vinegar.

Dried unripe mango used as a spice and is known as amchur (sometimes spelled amchoor) in India and ambi in Urdu. Amb is a Sindhi and aam is a Hindi/Urdu/Punjabi word for mango.

The sweet bell pepper (capsicum) was once known as mango in parts of the midwestern United States.[12]

Nutrient and antioxidant properties

An excellent overall nutritional source, mango is rich in a variety of phytochemicals and nutrients that qualify it as a model "superfruit", a term used to highlight potential health value of certain edible fruits. Among its constituents especially are high contents of prebiotic dietary fiber, vitamin C, polyphenols and carotenoids[13][14].

Mango contains diverse essential vitamins and dietary minerals, many of which are particularly high in content. The antioxidant vitamins A, C and E comprise 25%, 76% and 9%, respectively, of the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) in a 165 g serving. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, 11% DRI), vitamin K (9% DRI), other B vitamins and essential nutrients such as potassium, copper and 17 amino acids are at good levels. Mango peel and pulp contain other phytonutrients, such as the pigment antioxidants - carotenoids and polyphenols - and omega-3 and -6 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

The edible mango peel has considerable value as a source of dietary fiber and antioxidant pigments[15][16][17]. Contained within the peel and pulp are rich contents of polysaccharides as fiber sources, especially starch and pectins[18][19].

Antioxidants of the peel and pulp include numerous carotenoids, such as the provitamin A compound, beta-carotene, lutein and alpha-carotene[20], polyphenols[21][22] such as quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechins, tannins, and the unique mango xanthone, mangiferin[23], any of which may counteract free radicals in various disease mechanisms as revealed in preliminary research[24][25]. Contents of these phytochemicals and nutrients appear to vary across different mango species[26]. Up to 25 different carotenoids have been isolated from mango pulp, the densest content for which was beta-carotene accounting for the yellow-orange pigmentation of most mango species[27]. Peel and leaves also have significant content of polyphenols, including xanthones, mangiferin and gallic acid[28].

The mango triterpene, lupeol[29] is an effective inhibitor in laboratory models of prostate and skin cancers[30][31][32]. An extract of mango branch bark called Vimang, isolated by Cuban scientists, contains numerous polyphenols with antioxidant properties in vitro[33] and on blood parameters of elderly humans[34].

As mango is in the same plant family Anacardiaceae as poison sumac and poison ivy, its peel may contain surface chemicals that cause allergic reactions in some people. Peels of some mango species also produce an oil, urushiol, that may elicit a skin rash called urushiol-induced contact dermatitis.

Mango, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy272 kJ (65 kcal)
17.00 g
Sugars14.8 g
Dietary fiber1.8 g
0.27 g
.51 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
4%
38 μg
4%
445 μg
Thiamine (B1)
5%
0.058 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
4%
0.057 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.584 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
3%
0.160 mg
Vitamin B6
8%
0.134 mg
Folate (B9)
4%
14 μg
Vitamin C
31%
27.7 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
10 mg
Iron
1%
0.13 mg
Magnesium
2%
9 mg
Phosphorus
1%
11 mg
Potassium
5%
156 mg
Zinc
0%
0.04 mg
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[35] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[36]

Nutrient data in the text are for a 165 g serving as presented by Nutritiondata.com whereas the table presents data for a 100 g serving.

Production and consumption

Banganpalli mangoes sold at Guntur, India

Approximately 50% of all tropical fruits produced worldwide are mangoes. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates worldwide production of mangoes at more than 23 million tons in 2001.[37] With 10 million tons, India accounts for almost half of the world production, followed by China (3 million tons), Mexico (1.5 million tons) and Thailand (1.35 million tons). The aggregate production of 10 countries is responsible for roughly 80% of the entire world mango production.

A mango cut using the "hedgehog" method

Alphonso, Benishan or Benishaan (Banganpalli in Telugu and Tamil) and Kesar mango varieties are considered among the best mangoes in India. Commonly exported, the Alphonso cultivar is grown exclusively in the Konkan region of Maharashtra. Alphonso is named after Afonso De Albuquerque who reputedly brought the drupe on his journeys to Goa.[citation needed] The locals took to calling this Aphoos in Konkani and in Maharashtra the pronunciation got further corrupted to Hapoos. This variety then was taken to the Konkan region of Maharashtra and other parts of India. Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka states in the south, Gujarat in western India, and Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the north are major producers of mangoes harvested especially to make spicy mango pickles having regional differences in taste. In Pakistan the popular mangoes are the Sindhri and Chausa. The Sindhri mango is primarily produced in the province of Sindh and can measure up to half a foot in length. It is generally considered one of the best mangoes in the world.

Generally, once ripe, mangoes have an orange-yellow or reddish peel and are juicy for eating while those intended for export are often picked while under-ripe with green peels. Although producing ethylene while ripening, unripened exported mangoes do not have the same juiciness or flavor as fresh fruit.

A woman selling mangoes in Venezuela
Native green mangoes from the Philippines

Mangoes are popular throughout Latin America. In Mexico, sliced mango is eaten with chili powder and/or salt. Street vendors sometimes sell whole mangoes on a stick, dipped in the chili-salt mixture. In Indonesia, green mango is sold by street vendors with sugar and salt and/or chili, or used in a sour salad called rujak or rojak in Malaysia and Singapore. Ayurveda considers ripe mango sweet and heating, balancing all three doshas (humors), while also providing energy. Powdered raw mango is sometimes a condiment in various cuisines.

Like other drupaceous fruits, mangoes come in both freestone and clingstone varieties.

Production of mangoes by country

  1. India: 1,600,000 hectares
  2. China: 433,600 hectares
  3. Thailand: 285,000 hectares
  4. Indonesia: 273,440 hectares
  5. Mexico: 173,837 hectares
  6. Philippines: 160,000 hectares
  7. Pakistan: 151,500 hectares
  8. Nigeria: 125,000 hectares
  9. Guinea: 82,000 hectares
  10. Brazil: 68,000 hectares
  11. Vietnam: 53,000 hectares
  12. Bangladesh: 51,000 hectares

Cultivars

Main article: List of mango cultivars

Many hundreds of named mango cultivars exist. In mango orchards, several cultivars are often intermixed to improve cross-pollination.

A common cultivar is Alphonso known in Asia under its original name, Hapoos. Popular outside the Indian subcontinent, Alphonso is an important export product.

Other popular cultivars are mentioned in the list (link above).

Cultivars excelling in one climate may fail to achieve elsewhere. For example, the cultivar Julie, a Jamaican favorite, and Alphonso have not been successfully grown in Florida.

The current world market is dominated by the cultivar Tommy Atkins, a seedling of Haden which first fruited in 1940 in southern Florida, USA. Despite being initially rejected commercially by Florida researchers[citation needed], Tommy Atkins is now a favorite worldwide. For example, 80% of mangos in UK supermarkets are Tommy Atkins. Despite its fibrous flesh and fair taste, growers world-wide have embraced the cultivar for its exceptional production and disease resistance, the shelf-life of its fruit, their transportability as well as size and appealing color. Tommy Atkins is predominant in the USA as well, although other cultivars, such Kent, Keitt, the Haitian grown Madame Francis and the Mexican grown Champagne are widely available.

In urban areas of southern Florida, small gardens, or lack thereof, have fueled the desire for dwarf mango trees. The Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden has promoted "condo mangos" which produce at a height below 2-2.5 m.[citation needed]

A list of additional leading cultivars can be found at the cultivar list in the external links below.

There is an Australian variety of mango known as R2E2, a name based on the orchard row location of the original plant.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Mango: botany and taxonomy, HorticultureWorld
  2. ^ Oxford English Dictionary mango, n. 1
  3. ^ [1]
  4. ^ [2]
  5. ^ a b c Ensminger 1994: 1373
  6. ^ Watson, Andrew. Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world. Cambridge University Press. p.72-3
  7. ^ http://www.rediff.com/money/2004/apr/21india.htm
  8. ^ knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/india/article.cfm?articleid=4201
  9. ^ http://www.usaid.gov/in/newsroom/press_releases/may03_6p.htm
  10. ^ History of Indian yellow
  11. ^ Color: A Natural History of the Palette, Random House, 2004
  12. ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary Definition.
  13. ^ Gross PM. Superfruits have signatures, Natural Products Information Center, July, 2008
  14. ^ Nutrient profile for mango, Nutritiondata.com
  15. ^ Mango peel extract shows functional food potential
  16. ^ Rocha Ribeiro SM, Queiroz JH, Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz ME, Campos FM, Pinheiro Sant'ana HM. [However, the mango peel has also been noted to contain properties similar to the sumac or poison ivy, resulting in allergic rashes around the mouth, eyes, cheeks, and genitalia if the urushiol oil is so spread. Washing the affected area five minutes after contact should prevent some of the symptoms. Symptoms can be swelling, formation of yellow sores, redness, and if unmaintained, may be subjected to bacterial infection.] Antioxidant in mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2007 Mar;62(1):13-7.[3]
  17. ^ Ajila CM, Prasada Rao UJ. Protection against hydrogen peroxide induced oxidative damage in rat erythrocytes by Mangifera indica L. peel extract. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008 Jan;46(1):303-9.[4]
  18. ^ Iagher F, Reicher F, Ganter JL. Structural and rheological properties of polysaccharides from mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp. Int J Biol Macromol. 2002 Dec 20;31(1-3):9-17.[5]
  19. ^ Berardini N, Fezer R, Conrad J, Beifuss U, Carle R, Schieber A. Screening of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cultivars for their contents of flavonol O- and xanthone C-glycosides, anthocyanins, and pectin. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Mar 9;53(5):1563-70.[6]
  20. ^ Gouado I, Schweigert FJ, Ejoh RA, Tchouanguep MF, Camp JV. Systemic levels of carotenoids from mangoes and papaya consumed in three forms (juice, fresh and dry slice). Eur J Clin Nutr. 2007 Oct;61(10):1180-8.[7]
  21. ^ Mahattanatawee K, Manthey JA, Luzio G, Talcott ST, Goodner K, Baldwin EA. Total antioxidant activity and fiber content of select Florida-grown tropical fruits. J Agric Food Chem. 2006 Sep 20;54(19):7355-63.[8]
  22. ^ Singh UP, Singh DP, Singh M, Maurya S, Srivastava JS, Singh RB, Singh SP. Characterization of phenolic compounds in some Indian mango cultivars. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2004 Mar;55(2):163-9.[9]
  23. ^ Andreu GL, Delgado R, Velho JA, Curti C, Vercesi AE. Mangiferin, a natural occurring glucosyl xanthone, increases susceptibility of rat liver mitochondria to calcium-induced permeability transition. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2005 Jul 15;439(2):184-93.[10]
  24. ^ Percival SS, Talcott ST, Chin ST, Mallak AC, Lounds-Singleton A, Pettit-Moore J. Neoplastic transformation of BALB/3T3 cells and cell cycle of HL-60 cells are inhibited by mango (Mangifera indica L.) juice and mango juice extracts. J Nutr. 2006 May;136(5):1300-4.[11]
  25. ^ Rodríguez J, Di Pierro D, Gioia M, Monaco S, Delgado R, Coletta M, Marini S. Effects of a natural extract from Mangifera indica L, and its active compound, mangiferin, on energy state and lipid peroxidation of red blood cells. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2006 Sep;1760(9):1333-42.[12]
  26. ^ Rocha Ribeiro SM, Queiroz JH, Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz ME, Campos FM, Pinheiro Sant'ana HM. Antioxidant in mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2007 Mar;62(1):13-7.[13]
  27. ^ Chen JP, Tai CY, Chen BH. Improved liquid chromatographic method for determination of carotenoids in Taiwanese mango (Mangifera indica L.). J Chromatogr A. 2004 Oct 29;1054(1-2):261-8. [14]
  28. ^ Barreto JC et al. Characterization and Quantitation of Polyphenolic Compounds in Bark, Kernel, Leaves, and Peel of Mango (Mangifera indica L.). J Agric Food Chem. 2008 Jun 18. [Epub ahead of print][15]
  29. ^ Chaturvedi PK, Bhui K, Shukla Y. Lupeol: connotations for chemoprevention. Cancer Lett. 2008 May 8;263(1):1-13. [16]
  30. ^ Prasad S, Kalra N, Singh M, Shukla Y. Protective effects of lupeol and mango extract against androgen induced oxidative stress in Swiss albino mice. Asian J Androl. 2008 Mar;10(2):313-8.[17]
  31. ^ Nigam N, Prasad S, Shukla Y. Preventive effects of lupeol on DMBA induced DNA alkylation damage in mouse skin. Food Chem Toxicol. 2007 Nov;45(11):2331-5.[18]
  32. ^ Saleem M, Afaq F, Adhami VM, Mukhtar H. Lupeol modulates NF-kappaB and PI3K/Akt pathways and inhibits skin cancer in CD-1 mice. Oncogene. 2004 Jul 1;23(30):5203-14. [19]
  33. ^ Rodeiro I, Cancino L, González JE, Morffi J, Garrido G, González RM, Nuñez A, Delgado R. Evaluation of the genotoxic potential of Mangifera indica L. extract (Vimang), a new natural product with antioxidant activity. Food Chem Toxicol. 2006 Oct;44(10):1707-13.[20]
  34. ^ Pardo-Andreu GL, Philip SJ, Riaño A, Sánchez C, Viada C, Núñez-Sellés AJ, Delgado R. Mangifera indica L. (Vimang) protection against serum oxidative stress in elderly humans. Arch Med Res. 2006 Jan;37(1):158-64.[21]
  35. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  36. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 2024-05-09. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  37. ^ Jedele S, Hau AM, von Oppen M. An analysis of the world market for mangoes and its importance for developing countries. Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, 2003[22]

References

  • Ensminger, Audrey H. (1994). Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia. CRC Press. p. 1373. ISBN 0849389801. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Ensminger, Audrey H. (1995). The Concise Encyclopedia of Foods & Nutrition. CRC Press. p. 651. ISBN 0849344557. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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