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The advent of ''Homo'' was thought to coincide with the first evidence of [[stone tool]]s (the [[Oldowan]] industry), and thus by definition with the beginning of the [[Lower Palaeolithic]]; however, recent evidence from Ethiopia now places the earliest evidence of stone tool usage at before 3.39 million years ago.<ref>McPherron, S. P., Z. Alemseged, C. W. Marean, J. G. Wynn, D. Reed, D. Geraads, R. Bobe, and H. A. Bearat. 2010. Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. ''Nature'' 466:857-860.</ref> The emergence of ''Homo'' coincides roughly with the onset of [[Quaternary glaciation]], the beginning of the current [[ice age]].
The advent of ''Homo'' was thought to coincide with the first evidence of [[stone tool]]s (the [[Oldowan]] industry), and thus by definition with the beginning of the [[Lower Palaeolithic]]; however, recent evidence from Ethiopia now places the earliest evidence of stone tool usage at before 3.39 million years ago.<ref>McPherron, S. P., Z. Alemseged, C. W. Marean, J. G. Wynn, D. Reed, D. Geraads, R. Bobe, and H. A. Bearat. 2010. Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. ''Nature'' 466:857-860.</ref> The emergence of ''Homo'' coincides roughly with the onset of [[Quaternary glaciation]], the beginning of the current [[ice age]].


All species of the genus except ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'' (modern humans) are extinct. ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'', traditionally considered the last surviving relative, died out about 24,000 years ago, though a recent discovery suggests another species, ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'', discovered in 2013, may have lived as recently as 12,000 years ago. The other extant [[Homininae]]—the [[chimpanzee]]s and [[gorilla]]s—have a limited geographic range. In contrast, the evolution of humans is a history of migrations and admixture. According to [[genetics|genetic studies]], modern humans bred with "at least two groups" of [[ancient humans]]: [[Neanderthals]] and [[Denisovans]].<ref name="NYT-01302012">{{cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alanna |title=DNA Turning Human Story Into a Tell-All |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/31/science/gains-in-dna-are-speeding-research-into-human-origins.html |date=January 30, 2012 |publisher=[[NYTimes]] |accessdate=January 31, 2012 }}</ref> Humans repeatedly left Africa to populate Eurasia and finally the Americas, Oceania, and the rest of the world.
All species of the genus except ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'' (modern humans) are extinct. ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'', traditionally considered the last surviving relative, died out about 24,000 years ago, though a recent discovery suggests another species, ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'', discovered in 2003, may have lived as recently as 12,000 years ago. The other extant [[Homininae]]—the [[chimpanzee]]s and [[gorilla]]s—have a limited geographic range. In contrast, the evolution of humans is a history of migrations and admixture. According to [[genetics|genetic studies]], modern humans bred with "at least two groups" of [[ancient humans]]: [[Neanderthals]] and [[Denisovans]].<ref name="NYT-01302012">{{cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alanna |title=DNA Turning Human Story Into a Tell-All |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/31/science/gains-in-dna-are-speeding-research-into-human-origins.html |date=January 30, 2012 |publisher=[[NYTimes]] |accessdate=January 31, 2012 }}</ref> Humans repeatedly left Africa to populate Eurasia and finally the Americas, Oceania, and the rest of the world.


According to scientists in June 2012, early humans, such as [[Australopithecus sediba]], may have lived in [[savanna]]s but ate [[fruits]] and other foods from the [[forest]] - behavior similar to modern-day savanna [[chimpanzees]].<ref name="Nature-20120627">{{cite journal |last1=Henry |first1=Amanda G. |last2=Ungar |first2=Peter S. |last3=Passey |first3=Benjamin H. |last4=Sponheimer |first4=Matt |last5=Rossouw |first5=Lloyd |last6=Bamford |first6=Marion |last7=Sandberg |first7=Paul |last8=de Ruiter |first8=Darryl J. |last9=Berger |first9=Lee |title=The diet of Australopithecus sediba |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11185.html |date=June 27, 2012 |journal=[[Nature (journal)]] |doi=10.1038/nature11185 |accessdate=June 28, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="MSNBC-20120627">{{cite web |last=Boyle |first=Alan |title=This pre-human ate like a chimp |url=http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/27/12430341-this-pre-human-ate-like-a-chimp |date=June 27, 2012 |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |accessdate=June 28., 2012 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20120628">{{cite news |last=Wilford |first=John Noble |title=Some Prehumans Feasted on Bark Instead of Grasses |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/28/science/australopithecus-sediba-preferred-forest-foods-fossil-teeth-suggest.html |date=June 28, 2012 |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=June 28, 2012 }}</ref>
According to scientists in June 2012, early humans, such as [[Australopithecus sediba]], may have lived in [[savanna]]s but ate [[fruits]] and other foods from the [[forest]] - behavior similar to modern-day savanna [[chimpanzees]].<ref name="Nature-20120627">{{cite journal |last1=Henry |first1=Amanda G. |last2=Ungar |first2=Peter S. |last3=Passey |first3=Benjamin H. |last4=Sponheimer |first4=Matt |last5=Rossouw |first5=Lloyd |last6=Bamford |first6=Marion |last7=Sandberg |first7=Paul |last8=de Ruiter |first8=Darryl J. |last9=Berger |first9=Lee |title=The diet of Australopithecus sediba |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature11185.html |date=June 27, 2012 |journal=[[Nature (journal)]] |doi=10.1038/nature11185 |accessdate=June 28, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="MSNBC-20120627">{{cite web |last=Boyle |first=Alan |title=This pre-human ate like a chimp |url=http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/27/12430341-this-pre-human-ate-like-a-chimp |date=June 27, 2012 |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |accessdate=June 28., 2012 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20120628">{{cite news |last=Wilford |first=John Noble |title=Some Prehumans Feasted on Bark Instead of Grasses |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/28/science/australopithecus-sediba-preferred-forest-foods-fossil-teeth-suggest.html |date=June 28, 2012 |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=June 28, 2012 }}</ref>

Revision as of 21:30, 14 August 2012

This article is about the genus of hominids. For other uses, see Homo (disambiguation).
Homo
Temporal range: 2.4–0 Ma
↓
Pliocene–present
Homo habilis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Subtribe: Hominina
Genus: Homo
Linnaeus, 1758
Type species
Homo sapiens
Linnaeus, 1758
Species

Homo is the genus that includes modern humans and species closely related to them. The genus is estimated to be about 2.3 to 2.4 million years old,[1][2] having evolved from australopithecine ancestors with the appearance of Homo habilis. Specifically, H. habilis is assumed to be the direct descendant of Australopithecus garhi, which lived about 2.5 million years ago. However, in May 2010 H. gautengensis was discovered, a species believed to be even older than H. habilis.[3]

The most salient physiological development between the two species is the increase in cranial capacity, from about 450 cc (27 cu in) in A. garhi to 600 cc (37 cu in) in H. habilis. Within the Homo genus, cranial capacity again doubled from H. habilis through Homo ergaster or H. erectus to Homo heidelbergensis by 0.6 million years ago. The cranial capacity of H. heidelbergensis overlaps with the range found in modern humans.

The advent of Homo was thought to coincide with the first evidence of stone tools (the Oldowan industry), and thus by definition with the beginning of the Lower Palaeolithic; however, recent evidence from Ethiopia now places the earliest evidence of stone tool usage at before 3.39 million years ago.[4] The emergence of Homo coincides roughly with the onset of Quaternary glaciation, the beginning of the current ice age.

All species of the genus except Homo sapiens (modern humans) are extinct. Homo neanderthalensis, traditionally considered the last surviving relative, died out about 24,000 years ago, though a recent discovery suggests another species, Homo floresiensis, discovered in 2003, may have lived as recently as 12,000 years ago. The other extant Homininae—the chimpanzees and gorillas—have a limited geographic range. In contrast, the evolution of humans is a history of migrations and admixture. According to genetic studies, modern humans bred with "at least two groups" of ancient humans: Neanderthals and Denisovans.[5] Humans repeatedly left Africa to populate Eurasia and finally the Americas, Oceania, and the rest of the world.

According to scientists in June 2012, early humans, such as Australopithecus sediba, may have lived in savannas but ate fruits and other foods from the forest - behavior similar to modern-day savanna chimpanzees.[6][7][8]

Naming

Further information: List of alternative names for the human species

In biological sciences, particularly anthropology and palaeontology, the common name for all members of the genus Homo is "human".

The word homo is Latin, in the original sense of "human being", or "man" (in the gender-neutral sense). The word "human" itself is from Latin humanus, an adjective cognate to homo, both thought to derive from a Proto-Indo-European word for "earth" reconstructed as *dhǵhem-.[9]

The binomial name Homo sapiens is due to Carl Linnaeus[10] (1758).

Names for other species were coined beginning in the second half of the 19th century (H. neanderthalensis 1864, H. erectus 1892).

Species

See also: list of human evolution fossils

Species status of Homo rudolfensis, H. ergaster, H. georgicus, H. antecessor, H. cepranensis, H. rhodesiensis and H. floresiensis remains under debate. H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis are closely related to each other and have been considered to be subspecies of H. sapiens. Recently, nuclear DNA from a Neanderthal specimen from Vindija Cave has been sequenced, as well, using two different methods that yield similar results regarding Neanderthal and H. sapiens lineages, with both analyses suggesting a date for the split between 460,000 and 700,000 years ago, though a population split of around 370,000 years is inferred. The nuclear DNA results indicate about 30% of derived alleles in H. sapiens are also in the Neanderthal lineage. This high frequency may suggest some gene flow between ancestral humans and Neanderthal populations.[11]

Comparative table of Homo lineages
Lineages Temporal range
(kya) 		Habitat Adult height Adult mass Cranial capacity
(cm3) 		Fossil record Discovery Publication
of name
H. habilis
membership in Homo uncertain 		2,100–1,500[a][b] Tanzania 110–140 cm (3 ft 7 in – 4 ft 7 in) 33–55 kg (73–121 lb) 510–660 Many 1960 1964
H. rudolfensis
membership in Homo uncertain 		1,900 Kenya 700 2 sites 1972 1986
H. gautengensis
also classified as H. habilis 		1,900–600 South Africa 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) 3 individuals[14][c] 2010 2010
H. erectus 1,900–140[15][d][16][e] Africa, Eurasia 180 cm (5 ft 11 in) 60 kg (130 lb) 850 (early) – 1,100 (late) Many[f][g] 1891 1892
H. ergaster
African H. erectus 		1,800–1,300[18] East and Southern Africa 700–850 Many 1949 1975
H. antecessor 1,200–800 Western Europe 175 cm (5 ft 9 in) 90 kg (200 lb) 1,000 2 sites 1994 1997
H. heidelbergensis
early H. neanderthalensis 		600–300[h] Europe, Africa 180 cm (5 ft 11 in) 90 kg (200 lb) 1,100–1,400 Many 1907 1908
H. cepranensis
a single fossil, possibly H. heidelbergensis 		c. 450[19] Italy 1,000 1 skull cap 1994 2003
H. longi 309–138[20] Northeast China 1,420[21] 1 individual 1933 2021
H. rhodesiensis
early H. sapiens 		c. 300 Zambia 1,300 Single or very few 1921 1921
H. naledi c. 300[22] South Africa 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) 45 kg (99 lb) 450 15 individuals 2013 2015
H. sapiens
(anatomically modern humans) 		c. 300–present[i] Worldwide 150–190 cm (4 ft 11 in – 6 ft 3 in) 50–100 kg (110–220 lb) 950–1,800 (extant) —— 1758
H. neanderthalensis
 240–40[25][j] Europe, Western Asia 170 cm (5 ft 7 in) 55–70 kg (121–154 lb)
(heavily built) 		1,200–1,900 Many 1829 1864
H. floresiensis
classification uncertain 		190–50 Indonesia 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) 25 kg (55 lb) 400 7 individuals 2003 2004
Nesher Ramla Homo
classification uncertain 		140–120 Israel several individuals 2021
H. tsaichangensis
possibly H. erectus or Denisova 		c. 100[k] Taiwan 1 individual 2008(?) 2015
H. luzonensis
 c. 67[28][29] Philippines 3 individuals 2007 2019
Denisova hominin 40 Siberia 2 sites 2000
 2010[l]

Migration and admixture

See also: human evolution
Map of the migration of modern humans out of Africa, based on mitochondrial DNA: Coloured rings indicate years before present, in thousands.

H. habilis, which is considered the first member of the genus Homo, gave rise to H. ergaster. Some of H. ergaster migrated to Asia, where they are named Homo erectus, and to Europe with Homo georgicus. H. ergaster in Africa and H. erectus in Eurasia evolved separately for almost two million years and presumably separated into two different species. Homo rhodesiensis, who were descended from H. ergaster, migrated from Africa to Europe and became Homo heidelbergensis and later (about 250,000 years ago) Homo neanderthalensis and the Denisova hominin in Asia. The first Homo sapiens, descendants of H. rhodesiensis, appeared in Africa about 250,000 years ago. About 100,000 years ago, some H. sapiens sapiens migrated from Africa to the Levant and met with resident Neanderthals, with some admixture.[30] Later, about 70,000 years ago, perhaps after the Toba catastrophe, a small group left the Levant to populate Eurasia, Australia and later the Americas. A subgroup among them met the Denisovans[31] and, after further admixture, migrated to populate Melanesia. In this scenario, non-African people living today are mostly of African origin ("Out of Africa model"). However, there was also some admixture with Neanderthals and Denisovans, who had evolved locally (the "multiregional hypothesis"). Recent genomic results from the group of Svante Pääbo also show that 30,000 years ago at least three major subspecies coexisted: Denisovans, Neanderthals and Cro-magnons.[32] Today, only H. sapiens sapiens remains, with no other extant species or subspecies.

Spatial and time distribution of main Homo species

See also

References

  1. ^ Stringer, C.B. (1994). "Evolution of early humans". The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-521-32370-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help) Also ISBN 0-521-46786-1 (paperback)
  2. ^ McHenry, H.M (2009). "Human Evolution". Evolution: The First Four Billion Years. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-674-03175-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ "Toothy Tree-Swinger May Be Earliest Human"
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  5. ^ Mitchell, Alanna (January 30, 2012). "DNA Turning Human Story Into a Tell-All". NYTimes. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  6. ^ Henry, Amanda G.; Ungar, Peter S.; Passey, Benjamin H.; Sponheimer, Matt; Rossouw, Lloyd; Bamford, Marion; Sandberg, Paul; de Ruiter, Darryl J.; Berger, Lee (June 27, 2012). "The diet of Australopithecus sediba". Nature (journal). doi:10.1038/nature11185. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
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  20. ^ Ji Q, Wu W, Ji Y, Li Q, Ni X (25 June 2021). "Late Middle Pleistocene Harbin cranium represents a new Homo species". The Innovation. 2 (3): 100132. doi:10.1016/j.xinn.2021.100132. PMC 8454552. PMID 34557772.
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  30. ^ Green RE, Krause J, et al. A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science. 2010 May 7;328(5979):710-22. doi:10.1126/science.1188021 PMID 20448178
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  32. ^ Reich D ., et al. Denisova admixture and the first modern human dispersals into southeast Asia and Oceania. Am J Hum Genet. 2011 Oct 7;89(4):516-28, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005 PMID 21944045.
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