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In humans, small studies have been undertaken evaluating spirulina in undernourished children,<ref>Simpore, J., ''et al.'' "Nutrition Rehabilitation of HIV-Infected and HIV-Negative Undernourished Children Utilizing Spirulina." ''Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism.'' 49, 2005: 373-380.</ref> as a treatment for the cosmetic aspects of [[arsenic poisoning]],<ref>Mir Misbahuddin, AZM Maidul Islam, Salamat Khandker, Ifthaker-Al-Mahmud, Nazrul Islam and Anjumanara. Efficacy of spirulina extract plus zinc in patients of chronic arsenic poisoning: a randomized placebo-controlled study. (Risk factors ). ''Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology.'' 44.2 (March 2006): p135(7).</ref> in [[hay fever]] and [[allergic rhinitis]],<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1089/jmf.2005.8.27 | author = Mao TK ''et al.'' | date = Spring 2005 | title = Effects of a Spirulina-based dietary supplement on [[cytokine]] production from [[allergic rhinitis]] patients | url = | journal = Journal of Medicinal Food. | volume = 8 | issue = 1| pages = 27–30 | pmid = 15857205 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Cingi, C., Conk-Dalay, M., Cakli, H., & Bal, C. | title = The effects of Spirulina on allergic rhinitis | journal = European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Larynology | volume = 265 | issue = 10 | doi = 10.1007/s00405-008-0642-8 | pages = 1219–1223 | pmid = 18343939 | year = 2008 }}</ref> in arthritis,<ref name=Park2008>{{cite doi|10.1159/000151486}}</ref><sup>[Requires clarification, since IL-2 is typically thought of as ''pro''-inflammatory]</sup> in [[hyperlipidemia]] and [[hypertension]],<ref name=Park2008/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Torres-Duran PV, Ferreira-Hermosillo A, Juarez-Oropeza MA |title=Antihyperlipemic and antihypertensive effects of Spirulina maxima in an open sample of Mexican population: a preliminary report |journal=Lipids Health Dis |volume=6 |issue= |pages=33 |year=2007 |pmid=18039384 |pmc=2211748 |doi=10.1186/1476-511X-6-33 |url=}}</ref> and as a means of improving exercise tolerance.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lu, H.K., Hsieh, C.C. Hsu, J.J., Yang, Y.K., & Chou, H.N. | title = Preventative effects of Spirulina platensis on skeletal muscle damage under exercise induced oxidative stress | journal = European Journal of Applied Physiology | volume = 98 | pages = 220–226 | doi = 10.1007/s00421-006-0263-0 | pmid = 16944194 | year = 2006 | issue = 2 }}</ref>
In humans, small studies have been undertaken evaluating spirulina in undernourished children,<ref>Simpore, J., ''et al.'' "Nutrition Rehabilitation of HIV-Infected and HIV-Negative Undernourished Children Utilizing Spirulina." ''Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism.'' 49, 2005: 373-380.</ref> as a treatment for the cosmetic aspects of [[arsenic poisoning]],<ref>Mir Misbahuddin, AZM Maidul Islam, Salamat Khandker, Ifthaker-Al-Mahmud, Nazrul Islam and Anjumanara. Efficacy of spirulina extract plus zinc in patients of chronic arsenic poisoning: a randomized placebo-controlled study. (Risk factors ). ''Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology.'' 44.2 (March 2006): p135(7).</ref> in [[hay fever]] and [[allergic rhinitis]],<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1089/jmf.2005.8.27 | author = Mao TK ''et al.'' | date = Spring 2005 | title = Effects of a Spirulina-based dietary supplement on [[cytokine]] production from [[allergic rhinitis]] patients | url = | journal = Journal of Medicinal Food. | volume = 8 | issue = 1| pages = 27–30 | pmid = 15857205 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Cingi, C., Conk-Dalay, M., Cakli, H., & Bal, C. | title = The effects of Spirulina on allergic rhinitis | journal = European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Larynology | volume = 265 | issue = 10 | doi = 10.1007/s00405-008-0642-8 | pages = 1219–1223 | pmid = 18343939 | year = 2008 }}</ref> in arthritis,<ref name=Park2008>{{cite doi|10.1159/000151486}}</ref><sup>[Requires clarification, since IL-2 is typically thought of as ''pro''-inflammatory]</sup> in [[hyperlipidemia]] and [[hypertension]],<ref name=Park2008/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Torres-Duran PV, Ferreira-Hermosillo A, Juarez-Oropeza MA |title=Antihyperlipemic and antihypertensive effects of Spirulina maxima in an open sample of Mexican population: a preliminary report |journal=Lipids Health Dis |volume=6 |issue= |pages=33 |year=2007 |pmid=18039384 |pmc=2211748 |doi=10.1186/1476-511X-6-33 |url=}}</ref> and as a means of improving exercise tolerance.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lu, H.K., Hsieh, C.C. Hsu, J.J., Yang, Y.K., & Chou, H.N. | title = Preventative effects of Spirulina platensis on skeletal muscle damage under exercise induced oxidative stress | journal = European Journal of Applied Physiology | volume = 98 | pages = 220–226 | doi = 10.1007/s00421-006-0263-0 | pmid = 16944194 | year = 2006 | issue = 2 }}</ref>


At present, these studies are considered preliminary. According to the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]], at present there is insufficient scientific evidence to recommend spirulinaone of the best observation
At present, these studies are considered preliminary. According to the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]], at present there is insufficient scientific evidence to recommend spirulina supplementation for any human condition, and more research is needed to clarify its benefits, if any.<ref name="nih-medline">{{cite web | url = http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/923.html | title = Blue-green algae | work = [[MedlinePlus]] | publisher = [[National Institutes of Health]] | date = July 6, 2011 | accessdate = October 4, 2011}}</ref>
supplementation for any human condition, and more research is needed to clarify its benefits, if any.<ref name="nih-medline">{{cite web | url = http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/923.html | title = Blue-green algae | work = [[MedlinePlus]] | publisher = [[National Institutes of Health]] | date = July 6, 2011 | accessdate = October 4, 2011}}</ref>


==Organic certification==
==Organic certification==

Revision as of 16:04, 14 October 2012

Spirulina tablets
Spirulina（dried）
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,213 kJ (290 kcal)
23.9 g
Sugars3.1 g
Dietary fiber3.6 g
7.72 g
Saturated2.65 g
Monounsaturated0.675 g
Polyunsaturated2.08 g
57.47 g
Tryptophan0.929 g
Threonine2.97 g
Isoleucine3.209 g
Leucine4.947 g
Lysine3.025 g
Methionine1.149 g
Cystine0.662 g
Phenylalanine2.777 g
Tyrosine2.584 g
Valine3.512 g
Arginine4.147 g
Histidine1.085 g
Alanine4.515 g
Aspartic acid5.793 g
Glutamic acid8.386 g
Glycine3.099 g
Proline2.382 g
Serine2.998 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
3%
29 μg
3%
342 μg
0 μg
Thiamine (B1)
198%
2.38 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
282%
3.67 mg
Niacin (B3)
80%
12.82 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
70%
3.48 mg
Vitamin B6
21%
0.364 mg
Folate (B9)
24%
94 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Choline
12%
66 mg
Vitamin C
11%
10.1 mg
Vitamin D
0%
0 IU
Vitamin E
33%
5 mg
Vitamin K
21%
25.5 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
9%
120 mg
Iron
158%
28.5 mg
Magnesium
46%
195 mg
Manganese
83%
1.9 mg
Phosphorus
9%
118 mg
Potassium
45%
1363 mg
Sodium
46%
1048 mg
Zinc
18%
2 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water4.68 g
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[1] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[2]

Spirulina is a microalga that can be consumed by humans and animals. It is usually taken by humans as a nutritional supplement[citation needed] and is made primarily from two species of cyanobacteria: Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima.

Arthrospira is cultivated worldwide; used as a dietary supplement as well as a whole food; and is available in tablet, flake and powder form. It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture, aquarium and poultry industries.[3]

Etymology

These maxima and platensis species were once classified in the genus Spirulina. There is now agreement that they are in fact Arthrospira; nevertheless, and somewhat confusingly, the older term Spirulina remains in use for historical reasons.[3][4]

Ecology

Main article: Arthrospira

Arthrospira are free-floating filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by cylindrical, multicellular trichomes in an open left-hand helix. They occur naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with high pH and high concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate.[5] Arthrospira platensis occurs in Africa, Asia and South America, whereas Arthrospira maxima is confined to Central America.[3]

Historical use

Spirulina was a food source for the Aztecs and other Mesoamericans until the 16th century; the harvest from Lake Texcoco and subsequent sale as cakes were described by one of Cortés' soldiers.[6][7] The Aztecs called it "techuitlatl".[5]

Spirulina was found in abundance at Lake Texcoco by French researchers in the 1960s, but there is no reference to its use by the Aztecs as a daily food source after the 16th century, probably due to the draining of the surrounding lakes for agricultural and urban development.[4][5] The first large-scale spirulina production plant, run by Sosa Texcoco, was established there in the early 1970s.[3]

Spirulina has also been traditionally harvested in Chad. It is dried into cakes called dihé, which are used to make broths for meals, and also sold in markets. The spirulina is harvested from small lakes and ponds around Lake Chad.[8]

Cultivation

Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open channel raceway ponds, with paddle-wheels used to agitate the water.[5] The largest commercial producers of spirulina are located in the United States, Thailand, India, Taiwan, China, Pakistan, Burma (a.k.a. Myanmar), Greece and Chile .[3]

Nutrient and vitamin content

Protein and amino-acid content

Dried Spirulina contains about 60% (51–71%) protein. It is a complete protein containing all essential amino acids, though with reduced amounts of methionine, cysteine and lysine when compared to the proteins of meat, eggs and milk. It is, however, superior to typical plant protein, such as that from legumes.[4][9] The U.S. National Library of Medicine stated that spirulina was no better than milk or meat as a protein source, and was approximately 30 times more expensive per gram.[10]

Vitamin B12

Spirulina is not considered to be a reliable source of Vitamin B12. Spirulina supplements contain predominantly pseudovitamin B12, which is biologically inactive in humans.[11] Companies which grow and market spirulina have claimed it to be a significant source of B12 on the basis of alternative, unpublished assays, although their claims are not accepted by independent scientific organizations. The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada in their position paper on vegetarian diets state that spirulina cannot be counted on as a reliable source of active vitamin B12.[12] The medical literature similarly advises that spirulina is unsuitable as a source of B12.[11][13]

Other nutrients

Spirulina's lipid content is about 7% by weight,[14] and is rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), and also provides alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA).[9][15] Spirulina contains vitamins B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (nicotinamide), B6 (pyridoxine), B9 (folic acid), vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin A and vitamin E.[9][15] It is also a source of potassium, calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium, sodium and zinc.[9][15] Spirulina contains many pigments which may be beneficial and bioavailable, including beta-carotene, zeaxanthin, chlorophyll-a, xanthophyll, echinenone, myxoxanthophyll, canthaxanthin, diatoxanthin, 3'-hydroxyechinenone, beta-cryptoxanthin and oscillaxanthin, plus the phycobiliproteins c-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin.[3]

Possible health benefits and risks

Safety

Toxicological Studies

Toxicological studies of the effects of Spirulina consumption on humans and animals, including feeding as much as 800mg/kg,[16] and replacing up to 60% of protein intake with Spirulina,[17] have shown no toxic effects.[18] Fertility, teratogenicity, peri- and post-natal, and multi-generational studies on animals also have found no adverse effects from Spirulina consumption.[19] Spirulina intake has also been found to prevent damage caused by toxins affecting the heart, liver, kidneys, neurons, eyes, ovaries, DNA, and testicles.[19] In a 2009 study, 550 malnourished children were fed up to 10 g/day of Spirulina powder, with no adverse effects. Dozens of human clinical studies have similarly shown no harmful effects to Spirulina supplementation.[20]

The Food and Drug Administration has awarded the GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) designation to Spirulina from the American Spirulina companies Cyanotech, Earthrise, and RFI,[21][20] as well as to Spirulina produced by the Indian company Parry Pharmaceuticals.[22]

Spirulina is a form of cyanobacterium, some of which are known to produce toxins such as microcystins, BMAA, and others. Some spirulina supplements have been found to be contaminated with microcystins, albeit at levels below the limit set by the Oregon Health Department.[23] Microcystins can cause gastrointestinal disturbances and, in the long term, liver cancer. The effects of chronic exposure to even very low levels of microcystins are of concern, because of the potential risk of cancer.[23]

These toxic compounds are not produced by spirulina itself,[24] but may occur as a result of contamination of spirulina batches with other, toxin-producing, blue-green algae. Because spirulina is considered a dietary supplement in the U.S., there is no active, industry-wide regulation of its production and no enforced safety standards for its production or purity.[23] The U.S. National Institutes of Health describes spirulina supplements as "possibly safe", provided they are free of microcystin contamination, but "likely unsafe" (especially for children) if contaminated.[25] Given the lack of regulatory standards in the U.S., some public-health researchers have raised the concern that consumers cannot be certain that spirulina and other blue-green algae supplements are free of contamination.[23]

Heavy-metal contamination of spirulina supplements has also raised concern. The Chinese State Food and Drug Administration reported that lead, mercury, and arsenic contamination was widespread in spirulina supplements marketed in China.[26]

Safety issues for certain target groups

Due to very high Vitamin K content, patients undergoing anticoagulant treatments should not change consumption patterns of Spirulina without seeking medical advice to adjust the level of medication accordingly.

As all protein-rich foods, Spirulina contains the essential amino acid phenylalanine (2.6-4.1 g/100 g),[5] which should be avoided by people who have the rare genetic disorder phenylketonuria, where the body cannot metabolize this amino acid and it builds up in the brain, causing damage.[27]

In vitro research

Spirulina has been studied in vitro against HIV,[28] as an iron-chelating agent,[29] and as a radioprotective agent.[30] Animal studies have evaluated spirulina in the prevention of chemotherapy-induced heart damage,[31] stroke recovery,[32] age-related declines in memory,[33] diabetes mellitus,[34] in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,[35] and in rodent models of hay fever.[36]

Human research

In humans, small studies have been undertaken evaluating spirulina in undernourished children,[37] as a treatment for the cosmetic aspects of arsenic poisoning,[38] in hay fever and allergic rhinitis,[39][40] in arthritis,[41][Requires clarification, since IL-2 is typically thought of as pro-inflammatory] in hyperlipidemia and hypertension,[41][42] and as a means of improving exercise tolerance.[43]

At present, these studies are considered preliminary. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health, at present there is insufficient scientific evidence to recommend spirulina supplementation for any human condition, and more research is needed to clarify its benefits, if any.[25]

Organic certification

Until recently, much spirulina was certified organic. In 2002, the USDA's National Organic Standards Board voted to disallow the use of Chilean nitrate. They granted a three-year window to spirulina producers, which expired in 2006. As a result, leading spirulina manufacturers have stopped labeling their spirulina as organic, citing safety concerns of nitrate alternatives.[44]

Advocates

Recognizing the potential of spirulina in the sustainable development agenda, several member states of the United Nations came together to form an intergovernmental organization named the Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition (IIMSAM).[45]

In the late 1980s and early '90s both NASA (CELSS)[46] and the European Space Agency (MELISSA)[47] proposed Spirulina as one of the primary foods to be cultivated during long-term space missions.

See also

Notes & references

  1. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  2. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 2024-05-09. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Vonshak, A. (ed.). Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.
  4. ^ a b c Ciferri O (1983). "Spirulina, the edible microorganism". Microbiol. Rev. 47 (4): 551–78. PMC 283708. PMID 6420655. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ^ a b c d e Habib, M. Ahsan B. (2008). "A REVIEW ON CULTURE, PRODUCTION AND USE OF SPIRULINA AS FOOD FOR HUMANS AND FEEDS FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND FISH" (PDF). FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS. Retrieved November 20, 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Diaz Del Castillo, B. The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico, 1517–1521. London: Routledge, 1928, p. 300.
  7. ^ Osborne, Ken; Kahn, Charles N. (2005). World History: Societies of the Past. Winnipeg: Portage & Main Press. ISBN 1-55379-045-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Abdulqader, G., Barsanti, L., Tredici, M. "Harvest of Arthrospira platensis from Lake Kossorom (Chad) and its household usage among the Kanembu." Journal of Applied Phycology. 12: 493-498. 2000.
  9. ^ a b c d Babadzhanov A.S.; et al. "Chemical Composition of Spirulina Platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan". Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 40 (3): 2004. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  10. ^ "Blue-green algae". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine. November 18, 2010. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
  11. ^ a b Watanabe F (2007). "Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability". Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood). 232 (10): 1266–74. doi:10.3181/0703-MR-67. PMID 17959839. Most of the edible blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) used for human supplements predominantly contain pseudovitamin B(12), which is inactive in humans. The edible cyanobacteria are not suitable for use as vitamin B(12) sources, especially in vegans.
  12. ^ Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets
  13. ^ Watanabe F, Katsura H, Takenaka S, Fujita T, Abe K, Tamura Y, Nakatsuka T, Nakano Y (1999). "Pseudovitamin B(12) is the predominant cobamide of an algal health food, spirulina tablets". J. Agric. Food Chem. 47 (11): 4736–41. doi:10.1021/jf990541b. PMID 10552882. The results presented here strongly suggest that spirulina tablet algal health food is not suitable for use as a B12 source, especially in vegetarians.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/content/vol9/issue4/full/5/
  15. ^ a b c Tokusoglu O., Unal M.K. "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana". Journal of Food Science. 68 (4): 2003.
  16. ^ Krishnakumari, M.K. (1981). "Food Safety Evaluation: acute oral and dermal effects of the algae Scenedesmus acutus and Spirulina platensis on albino rats". J. Food Protect. 44 (934). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Bizzi, A. (1980). Materassi, R. (ed.). "Trattamenti prolungati nel ratto con diete conntenenti proteine di Spirulina. Aspetti biochimici, morfologici e tossicologici". Prospettive della coltura di Spirulina in Italia. 205. Accademia dei Geo rgofili, Firence. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378874198000804
  19. ^ a b Chamorro-Cevallos, G. (2008). Gershwin, M.E. (ed.). "Toxicologic Studies and Antitoxic Properties of Spirulina". Spirulina in Human Nutrition and Health. CRC Press. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ a b http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/gras_notices/GRN000394.pdf
  21. ^ http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/gras_notices/grn_101.pdf
  22. ^ http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/gras_notices/GRN391.pdf
  23. ^ a b c d Gilroy, D., Kauffman, K., Hall, D., Huang, X., & Chu, F. (2000). "Assessing potential health risks from microcystin toxins in blue-green algae dietary supplements". Environmental Health Perspectives. 108 (5): 435–439. doi:10.2307/3454384. JSTOR 3454384. PMC 1638057. PMID 10811570.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Belay, Amha (2008). "Spirulina (Arthrospira): Production and Quality Assurance". Spirulina in Human Nutrition and Health, CRC Press: 1–25.
  25. ^ a b "Blue-green algae". MedlinePlus. National Institutes of Health. July 6, 2011. Retrieved October 4, 2011.
  26. ^ "China's drug agency rejects state media claims of cover-up in lead found in health supplement". Washington Post. April 10, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2012.
  27. ^ Robb-Nicholson, C. (2006). "By the way, doctor". Harvard Women's Health Watch. 8.
  28. ^ Ayehunie, S. et al. "Inhibition of HIV-1 Replication by an Aqueous Extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis)." JAIDS: Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes & Human Retrovirology. 18, 1, May 1998: 7-12.
  29. ^ Barmejo-Bescós, P., Piñero-Estrada, E., &Villar del Fresno, A. (2008). "Neuroprotection by Spirulina platensis protean extract and phycocyanin against iron-induced toxicity in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells". Toxicology in Vitro. 22 (6): 1496–1502. doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2008.05.004. PMID 18572379.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Radioprotective effect of extract from spirulina in mouse bone marrow cells studied by using the micronucleus test, by P. Qishen, Kolman et al. 1989. In Toxicology Letters 48: 165-169. China.
  31. ^ Khan M.; et al. (2005). "Protective effect of Spirulina against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity". Phytotherapy Research. 19 (12): 1030–7. doi:10.1002/ptr.1783. PMID 16372368. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  32. ^ Wang, Y., et al. "Dietary supplementation with blueberries, spinach, or spirulina reduces ischemic brain damage." Experimental Neurology. May, 2005 ;193(1):75-84.
  33. ^ Gemma, C., et al. "Diets enriched in foods with high antioxidant activity reverse age-induced decreases in cerebellar beta-adrenergic function and increases in proinflammatory cytokines." Experimental Neurology. July 15, 2002; 22(14):6114-20.
  34. ^ Kulshreshtha, A., Zacharia, J., Jarouliya, U.,Bhadauriya, P., Prasad, G.B.K.S., & Bisen, P.S. (2008). "Spirulina in Health Care Management". Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. 9 (5): 400–405. doi:10.2174/138920108785915111. PMID 18855693.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ "ALSUntangled No. 9: Blue-green algae (Spirulina) as a treatment for ALS". Amyotroph Lateral Scler. 12 (2): 153–5. 2011. doi:10.3109/17482968.2011.553796. PMID 21323493. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  36. ^ Chen, LL, et al. "Experimental study of spirulina platensis in treating allergic rhinitis in rats." 中南大学学报(医学版) = Journal of Central South University (Medical Sciences). Feb. 2005. 30(1):96-8.
  37. ^ Simpore, J., et al. "Nutrition Rehabilitation of HIV-Infected and HIV-Negative Undernourished Children Utilizing Spirulina." Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 49, 2005: 373-380.
  38. ^ Mir Misbahuddin, AZM Maidul Islam, Salamat Khandker, Ifthaker-Al-Mahmud, Nazrul Islam and Anjumanara. Efficacy of spirulina extract plus zinc in patients of chronic arsenic poisoning: a randomized placebo-controlled study. (Risk factors ). Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 44.2 (March 2006): p135(7).
  39. ^ Mao TK; et al. (Spring 2005). "Effects of a Spirulina-based dietary supplement on cytokine production from allergic rhinitis patients". Journal of Medicinal Food. 8 (1): 27–30. doi:10.1089/jmf.2005.8.27. PMID 15857205. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  40. ^ Cingi, C., Conk-Dalay, M., Cakli, H., & Bal, C. (2008). "The effects of Spirulina on allergic rhinitis". European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Larynology. 265 (10): 1219–1223. doi:10.1007/s00405-008-0642-8. PMID 18343939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ a b Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1159/000151486, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1159/000151486 instead.
  42. ^ Torres-Duran PV, Ferreira-Hermosillo A, Juarez-Oropeza MA (2007). "Antihyperlipemic and antihypertensive effects of Spirulina maxima in an open sample of Mexican population: a preliminary report". Lipids Health Dis. 6: 33. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-6-33. PMC 2211748. PMID 18039384.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  43. ^ Lu, H.K., Hsieh, C.C. Hsu, J.J., Yang, Y.K., & Chou, H.N. (2006). "Preventative effects of Spirulina platensis on skeletal muscle damage under exercise induced oxidative stress". European Journal of Applied Physiology. 98 (2): 220–226. doi:10.1007/s00421-006-0263-0. PMID 16944194.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ Organic standards spark spirulina row
  45. ^ IIMSAM, Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition
  46. ^ Characterization of Spirulina biomass for CELSS diet potential. Normal, Al.: Alabama A&M University, 1988.
  47. ^ Cornet J.F., Dubertret G. "The cyanobacterium Spirulina in the photosynthetic compartment of the MELISSA artificial ecosystem." Workshop on artificial ecological systems, DARA-CNES, Marseille, France, October 24–26, 1990
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