Jump to content

Mu'awiya I: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Unflavoured (talk | contribs)
1,545 edits
→Appearance and habits: POV and weasel-ly. Deleting.
Line 144: Line 144:


==Appearance and habits==
==Appearance and habits==
Shia Muslims and both several pro-Ali Sunni [[imam]]s like [[Al-Nasa'i]] and more anti-Shia Sunni imams like [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]] and [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj]], were of the opinion that Muawiyah was lazy, gluttonous, and obese to the point of not even being able to ride a horse. Nisa'i and Muslim narrate a [[Hadith terminology#Ṣaḥīḥ|Sahih]] hadith, wherein Muhammad summoned Muawiyah who snubbed him and continued eating his meal - Muhammad then cursed Muawiyah with the words: "May Allah never fill his belly!"<ref>[http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap11.php]{{Dead link|date=December 2012}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Sahih Muslim, The Book of Virtue, Good Manners and Joining of the Ties of Relationship</ref> Nisa'i was not the only Sunni scholar who accepted this hadith - there were many others, the foremost being Bukhari and Muslim who compiled the ''[[Sahih Muslim]]''.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Sahih al-Bukhari, Book #32, Hadith #6298</ref> It has been argued that in the [[Arab culture|Arabic culture]] and language the expression is a colloquialism which means a wish that the person's belly be so full of blessings of God (in the form of food) that his belly cannot take anymore, or that he wishes the persons blessings to be without an end. However, the two pre-eminent masters of Sunni hadith, Bukhari and Muslim, have rejected absolutely the latter apology for Muawiyah.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Further, Nisa'i was murdered when he recited this hadith in the presence of pro-Muawiya Arab-speaking Syrians as it was perceived as a curse of Muawiyah, which debases the unreferenced suggestion that the term was a form of praise and not condemnation.<ref>Ibn Khallikan, Al Wafat Al Ayan Imam, under the biography of Nisa'i, section dealing with his murder</ref> Shias{[who}} often question why there are no reliable precise accounts of Muawiyah actually participating in any battles after his conversion to Islam - no names of enemies he personally defeated in combat are known.{{fact|date=April 2013}}
Shia Muslims and both several pro-Ali Sunni [[imam]]s like [[Al-Nasa'i]] and more anti-Shia Sunni imams like [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]] and [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj]], were of the opinion that Muawiyah was lazy, gluttonous, and obese to the point of not even being able to ride a horse. Nisa'i and Muslim narrate a [[Hadith terminology#Ṣaḥīḥ|Sahih]] hadith, wherein Muhammad summoned Muawiyah who snubbed him and continued eating his meal - Muhammad then cursed Muawiyah with the words: "May Allah never fill his belly!"<ref>[http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap11.php]{{Dead link|date=December 2012}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Sahih Muslim, The Book of Virtue, Good Manners and Joining of the Ties of Relationship</ref> Nisa'i was not the only Sunni scholar who accepted this hadith - there were many others, the foremost being Bukhari and Muslim who compiled the ''[[Sahih Muslim]]''.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Sahih al-Bukhari, Book #32, Hadith #6298</ref> It has been argued that in the [[Arab culture|Arabic culture]] and language the expression is a colloquialism which means a wish that the person's belly be so full of blessings of God (in the form of food) that his belly cannot take anymore, or that he wishes the persons blessings to be without an end. However, the two pre-eminent masters of Sunni hadith, Bukhari and Muslim, have rejected absolutely the latter apology for Muawiyah.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Further, Nisa'i was murdered when he recited this hadith in the presence of pro-Muawiya Arab-speaking Syrians as it was perceived as a curse of Muawiyah, which debases the unreferenced suggestion that the term was a form of praise and not condemnation.<ref>Ibn Khallikan, Al Wafat Al Ayan Imam, under the biography of Nisa'i, section dealing with his murder</ref>


== Legacy ==
== Legacy ==

Revision as of 08:01, 18 April 2013

Muawiyah I
Reign661 – 680
PredecessorAli ibn Abu Talib
SuccessorYazid I
Born602 CE (21 BH)
DiedApril 29 or May 1, 680 CE (20 or 22 Rajab 60 AH) (aged 78)[1][2]
Names
Muʻāwīya ibn ʻAbī Sufyān
DynastyUmayyad
FatherAbu Sufyan ibn Harb
MotherHind bint Utbah

Muawiyah I (Arabic: معاوية ابن أبي سفيان Muʿāwiyah ibn ʾAbī Sufyān; 602 – April 29 or May 1, 680) established the Umayyad Dynasty of the caliphate,[3][4] and was the second caliph from the Umayyad clan.[5] After the conquest of Mecca by the Muslims, Muawiyah's family converted to Islam. Muawiyah and the Islamic prophet Muhammad were brothers-in-law after Muhammad married Muawiyah's sister, Ramla bint Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah became a secretary for Muhammad, and during the first and second caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), fought with the Muslims against the Byzantines in Syria. Muawiyah was politically adept in dealing with the Eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad.[6][7]

In 639, when his elder brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan (Governor of Syria) died in a plague, along with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah the governor before him and 25,000 other people, Umar then appointed Muawiyah as Governor of Syria. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.[8][9][10][11][12] 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and Emperor Constans II was almost killed. Under the instructions of the caliph Uthman ibn al-Affan, Muawiyah then prepared for the siege of Constantinople.

Then caliph Uthman ibn al-Affan was killed and Ali was appointed the fourth and final Rashidun Caliph and moved the capital to Kufa. Muawiyah wanted justice for the assassinated caliph Uthman ibn Affan. Ali then expelled Muawiyah from the Governorship. Muawiyah refused to obey Ali, and had some level of support from the Syrians in his rebelliousness, amongst whom he was a popular leader.[13] Ali called for military action against Muawiyah, but the reaction of the political classes in Medina was not encouraging, and thus Ali deferred. Eventually Ali marched on Damascus and fought Muawiyah's supporters at the inconclusive Battle of Siffin (657 CE). This depleted Muawiyah's force and gave the Eastern Roman Empire time to prepare the defences. After making a peace agreement with Ali he applied the siege of Constantinople. With depleted forces the war ended in an unsuccessful siege of Constantinople.

Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali signed a truce and retired to private life in Medina. Muawiyah thus established the Umayyad Caliphate, which was to be a hereditary dynasty,[14][15][16][17] and governed from Damascus in Syria instead of Medina in Arabia.

As caliph, Muawiyah developed a navy in the Levant and used it to wage a war against the Byzantine Empire in the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara. The Caliphate conquered several territories including Cyzicus which were subsequently used as naval bases.

Muawiyah I is a reviled figure in Shia Islam for several reasons. Firstly, because of his involvement in the Battle of Siffin against Ali, whom the Shia Muslims believe was Muhammad's true successor); secondly, for the breaking of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali, after the death of Hasan ibn Ali, one of broken terms being appointing his son Yazid as his successor; thirdly, on account of his responsibility for the killing of Hasan ibn Ali by bribing his wife Ja'dah binte Ash'as to poison him; and fourthly by distorting Islam to match his unislamic rule.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] and fifthly, for the deaths of various Companions of Muhammad.

Early life

Umayyad Mosque, established during Muawiyah's era.

Muawiyah bin Abi-Sufyan was born in Mecca [26] (601 CE) into the Banu Umayya sub-clan of the Banu Abd-Shams clan of the Quraysh tribe. The Quraysh controlled the city of Mecca (in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia) and the Banu Abd-Shams were among the most influential of its citizens. Muawiyah and the rest of his family were staunch opponents of the Muslims before the ascendancy of Muhammad. Along with his two older brothers Yazid and Utbah, Muawiyah was one of the members of the hunting party of his maternal uncle Waleed bin Utbah that pursued Muhammad during the hijra (migration), when Muhammad and Abu Bakr were hiding in Ghar al-Thawr (Cave of the Bull).[27]

In 630, Muhammad and his followers conquered Mecca, and most of the Meccans, including the Abd-Shams clan, formally submitted to Muhammad and accepted Islam. Muawiyah, along with his father Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, became Muslims at the conquest of Mecca when further resistance to Muslims became an impossibility.[28][29] Some scholars hold the view that Muawiyah was the second of the two to convert, with Abu Sufyan convincing him to do it.

Muhammad welcomed his former opponents, enrolled them in his army and gave them important posts in what was to become the Caliphate. After Muhammad's death (632) Muawiyah served in the Islamic army sent against the Byzantine forces in Roman Syria. He held a high rank in the army led by his brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan.

Virtues

Muawiyah has a few rare virtues. Muawiyah was politically adept in dealing with the Eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad.[6][7]

A narration also tells that Muhammad prayed to God in favor of Muawiyah: "Allahumma (O Allah) guide him and guide people by him."[30] This narration is in many hadith (narration) books. Al-Dhahabi says that this narration has a strong predication (reference), and Al-Dhahabi also explained how some scholars erred in saying that the narration is weak.[31] Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani (a modern narrations critic) also said: all the men of the predication (reference) are trustworthy. and then he explained how the predication is strong.[32]

Muawiyah was very active in the Arab–Byzantine wars and was also involved in the siege of Jerusalem.

Governor of Syria

In 639, Caliph Umar had appointed Muawiyah Ibn Abu Sufyan as the governor of Syria after the previous governors Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and his brother died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.[33][34]

Muawiyah gradually gained mastery over the other areas of Syria, instilling remarkable personal loyalty among his troops and the people of the region. By 647, Muawiyah had built a Syrian army strong enough to repel a Byzantine attack.

Muawiyah had no qualms about employing Christians in prominent positions of his government in Syria. Even if they came from families that previously served the Eastern Roman Empire. Their duplicity was something that Muawiyah could understand. He stayed out of the doctrinal squabbles that divided Christendom.[7] Under Muawiyah the Bayt al-mal or the welfare state continued for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled.

To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. In subsequent years, he took to an offensive against the Byzantines in campaigns that resulted in the capture of Cyprus (649) and Rhodes (654). This then resulted in the devastating defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, off the coast of Lycia, opening up the Mediterranean.[8][9][10][11][35] 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and Emperor Constans II was almost killed. At the same time, Muawiyah prepared to take Constantinople while Emperor Constans II was still in shock.

Muawiyah was motivated by Muhammads statements:

"The army from my people who will first perform jihad through water has made Paradise obligatory for itself."[36][37]

Before the battle, chronicler Theophanes the Confessor says, the Emperor dreamed of being at Thessalonika; this dream predicted his defeat against the Arabs because the word Thessalonika is similar to the sentence "thes allo niken", which means "gave victory to another (the enemy)".[38]

As Muawiyah and Caliph Uthman were preparing to attack Constantinople, Caliph Uthman ibn Affan was killed and civil war broke out between the Muslims. Muawiyah had asked Caliph Uthman ibn Affan if he could send guards to defend him, but Caliph Uthman ibn Affan refused, saying: "I do not want to spill the blood of Muslims, to save my own neck."

The rapid Muslim conquest of Syria and Egypt and the consequent Byzantine losses in manpower and territory meant that the Eastern Roman Empire found itself struggling for survival.

Ali was very religious and had worked very well in partnership with Umar as his advisor. Umar had consulted him on all the major issues. Ali had also been the chief judge in Madina. But unlike many of the other companions of Muhammad, Ali had not been involved in the camel caravan trade and had less business and administrative experience.

When Uthman was killed, the people went to Ali and said:

"This man is killed. The public have to have a leader. No one we have found more deserving to the position than you! You are the oldest in the faith and the nearest to the prophet by relationship."
"Don’t do that!" Ali said. "Better I be your advisor than your leader."

Ali later wrote in a letter "I did not approach the people to get their oath of allegiance but they came to me with their desire to make me their Amir (ruler). I did not extend my hands towards them so that they might swear the oath of allegiance to me but they themselves extended their hands towards me".[39]

Following the Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine-Sassanid Wars there were deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire. The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kufa so as to bring revenues into their area and oppose Syria.[40] They convinced Ali to come to Kufa and establish the capital in Kufa. Ali listened to them and moved the capital to Kufa.

Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprils arrested. Aisha also asked Ali to arrest the culprits. In Medina people wanted to know Ali’s point of view about war against Muslims. They wanted to know about his views on Muawiyah and his opposition. So they sent Ziyad Ben Hanzalah of Tamim who was an intimate friend to Ali. He went to him and sat for a while. Then Ali said: "Get ready Ziad!" "What for?" "To fight the Syrians."

He want back and told the people in Madina. In Madina, Marwan manipulated people. In Iraq, many people hated the Syrians following the Byzantine-Sassanid Wars that ran over hundreds of years. Some of Alis supporters were also very extreme in their views and considered every one to be their enemy. Many of them later became the Kharijites and eventually killed Ali.

Aisha (Aisha bint Abu Bakr) (Muhammad's widow), Talhah (Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah) and Zubayr ibn al-Awam (Abu ‘Abd Allah Zubayr ibn al-Awwam) were all in agreement with Muawiyah that those who assassinated Uthman should be brought to justice. They wanted Ali to arrest Uthman ibn Affan killer not fight Muawiyah.

When Ali moved his forces north against Muawiyah during the outbreak of the Muslim Civil War in 656, it bought a precious breathing pause for Byzantium, which Emperor Constans II (r. 641–668) used to shore up his defences, extend and consolidate his control over Armenia and most importantly, initiate a major army reform with lasting effect: the establishment of the themata, the large territorial commands into which Anatolia, the major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, was divided. The remains of the old field armies were settled in each of them, and soldiers were allocated land there in payment of their service. The themata would form the backbone of the Byzantine defensive system for centuries to come.[41] After his victory in the civil war, Muawiyah launched a series of attacks against Byzantine holdings in Africa, Sicily and the East.[42] By 670, the Muslim fleet had penetrated into the Sea of Marmara and stayed at Cyzicus during the winter.

While dealing with the Iraqis, Ali was unable to build a disciplined army and effective state institutions to exert control over his areas and as a result later spent a lot of time fighting elements of his own army in the form of the Kharijites. As a result on the Eastern front, Ali was unable to expand the state.[43]

Conflict with Ali

Muawiyah wanted justice for the assassinated caliph Uthman ibn Affan[citation needed]. Aisha (Aisha bint Abu Bakr) (Muhammad's widow), Talhah (Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah) and Zubayr ibn al-Awam (Abu ‘Abd Allah Zubayr ibn al-Awwam) were all in agreement with Muawiyah that those who assassinated Uthman should be brought to justice. They wanted Ali to arrest Uthman ibn Affan killer not fight Muawiyah. Marwan I and other people also manipulated everyone. Ali claimed that he was not able to apprehend and punish Uthman's murderers[citation needed] fearing rebel infiltration of the Muslim ranks. This resulted in Muawiyah refusing to acknowledge Ali's caliphate.[44]

Muawiyah did not participate in the campaign by Aisha, Talhah and Al-Zubayr went to Basra. After talking with Ali before the Camel, Zubair, did not want to fight and left the battlefield according to his promise, and was killed in an adjoining valley. A man named Amr ibn Jarmouz had followed Zubair and murdered him while he performed Salat.[45] The heated exchange and protests turned from words to blows, leading to loss of life on both sides during the Battle of the Camel.[46] The city of Basra went over to them but they were defeated in battle by Ali. Talhah and Al-Zubayr were killed. Ali pardoned Aisha and her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr escorted her back to Medina.

Ali then turned towards Syria. He marched to the Euphrates and engaged Muawiyah's troops at the Battle of Siffin (657). Accounts of the clash vary – however, it would seem that neither side had won a victory, since the Syrians called for arbitration to settle the matter, arguing that continuing the civil war would embolden the Byzantines.[47] There are several conflicting accounts of the arbitrations. One account suggests that Muawiyyah’s army were ordered to adorn the tips of their swords with pages from the Quran in an attempt to confuse the army of Ali and prevent them from winning the battle. As a result, the army of Ali ceased fighting so as not to bring harm to the Quran. Muawiyah proposed a cease-fire which Ali agreed to and it was decided to end the conflict through peaceful talks.[48]

After the battle Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah as an arbitrator and Ali appointed Abu Musa Ashaari. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10 miles north west of Maan in Jordon in February 658. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Ashaari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr ibn al-As.[49][50] Ali refused to accept the verdict and found him self technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire the Kharijites. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan.[51]

Now with a much depleted force, after making peace with Ali, Muawiyah shifted his focus back towards Constantinople. A massive Muslim fleet reappeared in the Marmara and re-established a base at Cyzicus, from there they raided the Byzantine coasts almost at will. Finally in 676, Muawiyah sent an army to Constantinople from land as well, beginning the First Arab Siege of the city. Constantine IV (r. 661–685) however used a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "Greek fire", invented by a Christian refugee from Syria named Kallinikos of Heliopolis, to decisively defeat the attacking Umayyad navy in the Sea of Marmara, resulting in the lifting of the siege in 678. The returning Muslim fleet suffered further losses due to storms, while the army lost many men to the thematic armies who attacked them on their route back.[52] Eyup was killed in the siege was, the standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his companions; His tomb is in Istanbul.[53]

At about the same time, unrest was brewing in Egypt. The governor of Egypt, Qais, was recalled, and Ali had him replaced with Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (the brother of Aisha and the son of Islam's first caliph Abu Bakr). Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr's rule resulted in widespread rebellion in Egypt. Muawiyah ordered 'Amr ibn al-'As to invade Egypt and 'Amr did so successfully.

When Alī was assassinated in 661, Muawiyah, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had the strongest claim to the Caliphate. Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali signed a truce and retired to private life in Medina.

Muawiyah said later: "I never fought against Ali, only about Uthman's death".[54] That was attested by Sharif Razi in his book, he said:

In the war... When we met people of Al-Sham, it seemed that our God is one, our prophet is the same, our calling is the same, and no one is more of a believer than the other about believing in Allah, or the prophet. The misunderstandings were about Uthman's blood, and we have nothing to do with it.

— Al-Sharif al-Radi, Nahj al-Balagha[55]


Sahih Al Bukhari

Volume 3, Book 49 (Peacemaking), Number 867 :[56] Narrated by Al-Hasan Al-Basri

By Allah, Al-Hasan bin Ali led large battalions like mountains against Muawiya. Amr bin Al-As said (to Muawiya), "I surely see battalions which will not turn back before killing their opponents." Muawiya who was really the best of the two men said to him, "O 'Amr! If these killed those and those killed these, who would be left with me for the jobs of the public, who would be left with me for their women, who would be left with me for their children?" Then Muawiya sent two Quraishi men from the tribe of 'Abd-i-Shams called 'Abdur Rahman bin Sumura and Abdullah bin 'Amir bin Kuraiz to Al-Hasan saying to them, "Go to this man (i.e. Al-Hasan) and negotiate peace with him and talk and appeal to him." So, they went to Al-Hasan and talked and appealed to him to accept peace. Al-Hasan said, "We, the offspring of 'Abdul Muttalib, have got wealth and people have indulged in killing and corruption (and money only will appease them)." They said to Al-Hasan, "Muawiya offers you so and so, and appeals to you and entreats you to accept peace." Al-Hasan said to them, "But who will be responsible for what you have said?" They said, "We will be responsible for it." So, what-ever Al-Hasan asked they said, "We will be responsible for it for you." So, Al-Hasan concluded a peace treaty with Muawiya. Al-Hasan (Al-Basri) said: I heard Abu Bakr saying, "I saw Allah's Apostle on the pulpit and Al-Hasan bin 'Ali was by his side. The Prophet was looking once at the people and once at Al-Hasan bin 'Ali saying, 'This son of mine is a Saiyid (i.e. a noble) and may Allah make peace between two big groups of Muslims through him."

Hassan wanted peace. He was one of the guards defending Uthman ibn Affan when the attacker climbed a wall and went around him and killed Uthman ibn Affan. Those events had led to much bloodshed. Many of Hassan's closest friends had been killed in those futile wars, including Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr who he was raised with. Many of the people around him also wanted peace. There was also a Kharijites rebellion on going and these people viewed everyone as an enermy. Hassan viewed Muawiyah as a Muslim, who could deal with the Kharijites. Hassan therefore made the Hassan–Muawiya treaty with Muawiyah.

Rule

In the year 661, Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem.[57] Muawiyah governed the geographically and politically disparate Caliphate, which now spread from Egypt in the west to Iran in the east, by strengthening the power of his allies in the newly conquered territories. Prominent positions in the emerging governmental structures were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious tolerance that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, especially in Syria itself. This policy also boosted his popularity and solidified Syria as his power base.

In a manner similar to Byzantine administrative practices, Muawiyah instituted several bureaucracies, called divans, to aid him in the governance and the centralization of the Caliphate and the empire. Early Arabic sources credit two diwans in particular to Muawiyah : the Diwan al-Khatam (Chancellery) and the Barid (Postal Service), both of which greatly improved communications within the empire.

According to Arab historian Ibn Kathir[58]

At the height of tension when fighting was about to erupt at Siffin between Imam Ali and Muawiyah, Muawiyah was informed that the Byzantine Emperor raised a very large army and was drawing very close to the borders of the Muslim state. He wrote to him, giving him a very clear warning, 'By God, if you do not stop your designs and go back to your place, I will end my dispute with my cousin and will drive you out of the entire land you rule, until I make the earth too tight for you.' The Byzantine Emperor was scared off and abandoned his plans

However, some shia scholars contend that he simply placated the Byzantine emperor with offers of land, gold, and slaves and soldiers.[59]

But looking at the Eastern Roman Empire records and the writings of Theophanes the Confessor, Emperor Constans II was still in shock after the Battle of the Masts and was too busy shoring up his defences, initiating major army reform for lasting effect and establishing the themata.[41][42]

Muawiyah died either on April 29 or May 1, 680, allegedly from a stroke. He was succeeded by his son Yazid I. Muawiyah had held the expanding empire together by force of his personality, through personal allegiances, in the style of a traditional Arab sheikh. However Muawiyah's attempt to start a dynasty failed because both Yazid and then his grandson Muawiya II died prematurely. His grandson Muawiya II abdicating and later died. The caliphate eventually went to Marwan I a descendant of another branch of Muawiyah's clan.

Muawiyah and Mawalis

In accordance with the ways of empire, Muawiyah favoured his Arab subjects over non-Arab Muslims (the Mawalis) - the discriminatory treatment of non-Arab Muslims by the victorious Umayyad forces are documented by both Sunni and Shia sources as in the example below concerning Muawiyah's commands to his governor Ziyad ibn Abih.[60][61][62]

Appearance and habits

Shia Muslims and both several pro-Ali Sunni imams like Al-Nasa'i and more anti-Shia Sunni imams like Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, were of the opinion that Muawiyah was lazy, gluttonous, and obese to the point of not even being able to ride a horse. Nisa'i and Muslim narrate a Sahih hadith, wherein Muhammad summoned Muawiyah who snubbed him and continued eating his meal - Muhammad then cursed Muawiyah with the words: "May Allah never fill his belly!"[63][64] Nisa'i was not the only Sunni scholar who accepted this hadith - there were many others, the foremost being Bukhari and Muslim who compiled the Sahih Muslim.[64][65] It has been argued that in the Arabic culture and language the expression is a colloquialism which means a wish that the person's belly be so full of blessings of God (in the form of food) that his belly cannot take anymore, or that he wishes the persons blessings to be without an end. However, the two pre-eminent masters of Sunni hadith, Bukhari and Muslim, have rejected absolutely the latter apology for Muawiyah.[64] Further, Nisa'i was murdered when he recited this hadith in the presence of pro-Muawiya Arab-speaking Syrians as it was perceived as a curse of Muawiyah, which debases the unreferenced suggestion that the term was a form of praise and not condemnation.[66]

Legacy

By his creation of a fleet, Muawiyah was the driving force of the Muslim effort against Byzantium. His Navy challenged the Byzantine navy and raided the Byzantine islands and coasts at will. The shocking defeat of the imperial fleet by the young Muslim navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655 was of critical turning point. It opened up the Mediterranean, considered a "Roman lake", and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean. This also allowed the expansion of the state into North Africa and Spain.[67][68] Trade between the Muslim eastern and southern shores and the Christian northern shores almost ceased during this period, isolating Western Europe from developments in the Muslim world: "In antiquity, and again in the high Middle Ages, the voyage from Italy to Alexandria was a commonplace; in early Islamic times the two countries were so remote that even the most basic information was unknown" (Kennedy).[69] Muawiyah also initiated the first large-scale raids into Anatolia from 641 on.[70][71]

After the Battle of the Masts Emperor Constans II was still in shock. Had Ali listened to Aisha (Aisha bint Abu Bakr) (Muhammad's widow), Talhah (Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah) and Zubayr ibn al-Awam (Abu ‘Abd Allah Zubayr ibn al-Awwam) and not confronted Muawiyah and depleted his forces, and made a peace treaty with him before the Battle of Siffin like Hassan rather that after the battle and joined him in the Siege of Constantinople, it would have been a very dangerous situation for the Byzantine Empire. The battle of Battle of Siffin gave Emperor Constans II time to shore up his defences and depleted Muawiyah forces.[41][42] Additionally the Kharijites would not have appeared and it is possible the splits between the Sunni and Shia would not have appeared.

Muawiyah greatly beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the very gates of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims charge that if anything, he was the instigator of the civil war, and weakened the Muslim nation and divided the Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies[72] and slander against Muhammad's family,[73] even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.[59]

One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shia doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali, in which Muawiyah said he would not make his son his successor.

Muawiyah had a personal library collection (bayt al-hikmah)[74] that was enlarged by his successors "throughout the Umayyad period. … This first major library outside of a mosque was known to include works on astrology, medicine, chemistry, military science, and various practical arts and applied sciences in addition to religion."[74]

Sunni view

Many Sunni Muslim historians view Muawiyah as a companion of Muhammad, and hence worthy of respect for this reason, and a few Sunni Muslims take great issue with the Shia criticism and vilification of him.[75] However, mainstream Sunni Muslims while refusing to adopt the negative Shia sentiment towards Muawiyah nevertheless quietly withhold according him religious status owing to his rebellions against Ali and Hasan ibn Ali, who are regarded as pious rulers. Finally, Muawiyah transformed the caliphate from a consensus system with some emphasis on religious qualification into a hereditary and monarchical one with no such stringent requirement, by designating his son Yazid as his successor.

A Sunni hadith says:

...Muawiyah who was really the best of the two men said to him, "O 'Amr! If these killed those and those killed these, who would be left with me for the jobs of the public, who would be left with me for their women, who would be left with me for their children?" Then Muawiya sent two Quraishi men from the tribe of 'Abd-i-Shams called 'Abdur Rahman bin Sumura and Abdullah bin 'Amir bin Kuraiz to Al-Hasan saying to them, "Go to this man (i.e. Al-Hasan) and negotiate peace with him and talk and appeal to him." So, they went to Al-Hasan and talked and appealed to him to accept peace...

— Muhammad Muhsin Khan, The Translation of the Meanings of Salih al-Bukhari[76]

Shia view

The Shia view Muawiyah as a tyrant, usurper and murderer. His supposed conversion to Islam before the conquest of Mecca is dismissed as a fable, or mere hypocrisy. He is also described as a manipulator and liar who usurped Islam purely for political and material gain of his father's loss. He was also widely regarded as a tyrant and usurper by both Shia Arabs and Persians, who despite being ruled by Sunni Arabs and their vassals for centuries, ultimately found the egalitarian Shia creed more palatable than the oppressive, Arab-supremacist tribal rule of Muawiyah. Ali was noted for upholding the rights of non-Arab Muslims, whereas the Umayyads are remembered in Persian history for squashing them. The Umayyads suppressed Persian culture and language, and a number of Iran's greatest contributors to Persian literature - both Shias like Ferdowsi and Sunnis like Saadi Shirazi - took the side of Ali, not Muawiyah.

According to Shia view, Muawiyah opposed Ali, out of sheer greed for power and wealth. His reign opened the door to unparalleled disaster, marked by the persecution of Ali, slaughtering of his followers,[77] and unlawful imprisonment of his supporters,[78] which only worsened when Yazid came into power and the Battle of Karbala ensued. Muawiyah is alleged to have killed many of Muhammad's companions (Sahabah), either in battle or by poison, due to his lust for power. Muawiyah killed several historical figures, including the Sahabah, Amr bin al-Hamiq, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr,[79] Malik al-Ashtar,[80] Hujr ibn Adi[81] (to which the families of Abu Bakr and Umar condemned Muawiyah for,[82] and the Sahaba deemed his killer to be cursed[83]) and Abd al-Rahman bin Hasaan (buried alive for his support of Ali).[84]

According to the Shia Muawiyah was also responsible for instigating the Battle of Siffin, the bloodiest battle in Islam's history, in which over 70,000 people (among them many of the last surviving companions of Muhammad) were killed. Notable among the Companions who were killed by Muawiyah's forces was Ammar ibn Yasir, a frail old man of 95 at the time of his death. Shii Muslims see his being killed at the hands of Muawiyah's army as significant because of a well-known hadith, present in both the Shia and Sunni books of hadith, narrated by Abu Hurairah and others, in which Muhammad is recorded to have said: "A group of rebels would kill you.".[85] Sahih Muslim[86] and Sahih al-Bukhari.

When the tide of the battle was turning in Ali's favor, Muawiyah stalled Ali's troops by raising the Quran on the tip of a bloody spear as a sort of "holy book shield" against attack by Muslims.[87] This sort of act is widely regarded as blasphemy and desecration of God's word, and Shia scholars condemn Muawiyah for it, arguing such a practice would today be condemned by Sunni Muslims just as much as Shia Muslims.

The killing of the two children of Ubaydullah ibn Abbas can also be found in Sunni and Shia texts.[88]

[...] Then he [i.e. Muawiyah] was informed that Ubaidullah had two infant sons. So he set out to reach them, and when he found them - they had two (tender) forelocks like pearls - [and] he ordered to kill them.[89]

From the Shia point of view and that of many Sunnis - as has been recorded in Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, in a hadith narrated by Abdullah ibn Umar that Hasan ibn Ali did not sign the treaty with Muawiyah because he liked him; rather, he did so to prevent even worse bloodshed than had already happened at Siffin. Hasan's intention was to preserve the Muslim Ummah and Shias believe to eventually restore the Caliphate to its rightful heirs, Muhammad's family (as per the terms of the treaty). He died before he was able to do this, allegedly poisoned by his wife on Muawiyah's orders.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Ahmad bin Ali. Lisan Al-Mizan: *Mu'wiyah ibn Abu Sufyan.
  2. ^ Al-Mufid, Muhammad bin Muhammad bin al-Numan. Masar Al-Shi'ah.
  3. ^ Caliph and Caliphate: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide
  4. ^ The Umayyad Dynasty at the University 0f Calgary
  5. ^ Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. The History of the Prophets and Kings (Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk), Vol. 18 Between Civil Wars: The Caliphate of Mu'awiyah 40 A.H., 661 A.D.-60 A.H., 680 A.D. (Michael G. Morony).
  6. ^ a b Sahih Muslim, The book of (Virtues of the companions), narration number [6409]:168-(2501) numbered by mohammad fo'ad abdul-baqi
  7. ^ a b c AD 2036 Is the End: The Truth about the Second Coming of Christ and the meaning of life Page 77 By Christian Jacobsen [1]
  8. ^ a b European Naval and Maritime History, 300-1500 By Archibald Ross Lewis, Timothy J. Runyan Page 24 [2]
  9. ^ a b History of the Jihad By Leonard Michael Kroll Page 123
  10. ^ a b A History of Byzantium By Timothy E. Gregory page 183
  11. ^ a b Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present By Mark Weston Page 61 [3]
  12. ^ The Medieval Siege By Jim Bradbury Page 11
  13. ^ Shahid Ashraf, Encyclopaedia of Holy Prophet and Companions, Anmol, 2004. (p.180)
  14. ^ Marshall Cavendish, "World and Its Peoples: The Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa", 2006. (p.186)
  15. ^ John L. La Monte, The world of the Middle Ages: a reorientation of medieval history, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1949. (p. 105)
  16. ^ Bernard F. Reilly, The medieval Spain, Cambridge University Press, 1993. (p. 55)
  17. ^ Grolier, Academic American encyclopedia, Volume 10, 1994 (p. 382)
  18. ^ Al-Masudi, Vol 2: Page 47
  19. ^ Tārikh (Concise History of Humanity) - Abu'l-Fida Vol 1: Page 182
  20. ^ Iqdul Farid - Ibn Abd Rabbāh Vol 2, Page 11
  21. ^ Rawzatul Manazir - Ibne Shahnah Vol 2, Page 133
  22. ^ Tārikhul Khamis, Husayn Dayarbakri Vol2, Page 238
  23. ^ Akbarut Tiwal - Dinawari Pg 400
  24. ^ Mawātilat Talibeyeen - Abul Faraj Isfahāni
  25. ^ Isti'ab - Ibne Abdul Birr
  26. ^ Ibn Manzur, summary of the history of Damascus, vol. 7, p. 356
  27. ^ Al-Madaini, Abu al-Hasan Ali bin Muhammad. Tarikh Al-Khulafah: *Mu'awiya bin Abu Sufyan.
  28. ^ The History of al-Tabari, Volume IX, The Last Years of the Prophet, p32, SUNY Press
  29. ^ Life of Muhammad, Ibn Hisham, Volume 2, p597 (Urdu)
  30. ^ The Great History Volume 5, 791: "عبد الرحمن بن أبي عميرة المزني يعد في الشاميين قال أبو مسهر حدثنا سعيد بن عبد العزيز عن ربيعة بن يزيد عن بن أبي عميرة قال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم لمعاوية اللهم اجعله هاديا مهديا واهده واهد به وقال عبد الله عن مروان عن سعيد عن ربيعة سمع عبد الرحمن سمع النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم مثله"
  31. ^ Talkhis al-ilal al-mutanahiya, narration number 225
  32. ^ Selselat al-ahadith al-sahiha (the collection of accepted narrations), Volume 4, page 615, narration number 1969
  33. ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung Page 61 [4]
  34. ^ Rahman (1999, p. 40)
  35. ^ The Medieval Siege By Jim Bradbury Page 11
  36. ^ Al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin Ismail. pp=409-410, Hadith No. 2924, Sahih Al Bukhari Vol. 1.
  37. ^ Al-Bukhari, Muhammad bin Ismail. Book 52, No. 175, Sahih Al Bukhari Vol. 4.
  38. ^ «θὲς ἄλλῳ νὶκην», see Bury, John Bagnell (1889), A history of the later Roman empire from Arcadius to Irene, Adamant Media Corporation, 2005, p.290. ISBN 1-4021-8368-2
  39. ^ Nahj ul Balagha Letter 54
  40. ^ Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War By Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi Page 32
  41. ^ a b c Treadgold (1997), pp. 314–318
  42. ^ a b c Treadgold (1997), pp. 318–324
  43. ^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000 By H. U. Rahman
  44. ^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000 By H. U. Rahman
  45. ^ anwary-islam.com
  46. ^ The Early Caliphate, Maulana Muhammad Ali, Al-Jadda Printers, pg. 169-206, 1983
  47. ^ Aisha Bewley, Mu'awiyah: Restorer of the Muslim Faith, pg. 22. Dar al Taqwa Ltd. 2002.
  48. ^ [5][dead link]
  49. ^ Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia edited by Alexander Mikaberidze Page 836 [6]
  50. ^ Ground Warfare: H-Q edited by Stanley Sandler Page 602
  51. ^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000 CE By H U Rahman Page 59
  52. ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 325–327
  53. ^ The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84176-759-X.
  54. ^ Template:Ar icon معاوية بن أبي سفيان: المهدي كاتب الوحي
  55. ^ Nahj al-Balagha (3/648), by Al-Sharif al-Radi
  56. ^ [7]
  57. ^ History of Israel and the Holy Land By Michael Avi-Yonah, Shimon Peres
  58. ^ Al-Bidayah wal-Nihayah
  59. ^ a b * Musharriful Mahbubin by Hazrat Khuwaja Mehboob Qasim Chishti Mushrrafi Qadri ra.gif Pages 216-218
    • Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu, Page 484, By Syed Mohammed Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963.
    • Habib Alseer Rabiyah AlAbrar, Volume 1, Alama JarulAllah Zamik (530 Hijri),
    • Hadoiqa Sanai, by Hakim Sanai (Died 525 Hijri, at Ghazni), Page 65-67,
    • Namoos Islam, by Agha Hashim Sialkoti, Published Lahore, 1939 - Pages 66-67
    • Tazkarah Tul-Aikram Tarikh-e-Khulafa Arab-Wa-Islam by Syed Shah Mohamed Kabir Abu Alalaiyi Dana Puri, Published Le Kishwar Press, Lakhnow, April 1924/ 1346 H
  60. ^ "Ansab al Ashraf" or "Futuh al-Buldan" by Baladhuri. p.417.
  61. ^ "Tarikh-i Sistan". p82
  62. ^ "Tarikh e Qum". p254-6.
  63. ^ [8][dead link]
  64. ^ a b c Sahih Muslim, The Book of Virtue, Good Manners and Joining of the Ties of Relationship
  65. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, Book #32, Hadith #6298
  66. ^ Ibn Khallikan, Al Wafat Al Ayan Imam, under the biography of Nisa'i, section dealing with his murder
  67. ^ Pryor & Jeffreys (2006), p. 25
  68. ^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 313–314
  69. ^ Kennedy (2004) pp. 120, 122
  70. ^ Kaegi (1995), pp. 246–247
  71. ^ El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 83–84
  72. ^ [9][dead link]
  73. ^ [10][dead link]
  74. ^ a b M. Lesley Wilkins (1994), "Islamic Libraries to 1920", Encyclopedia of Library History, New York: Garland Pub., ISBN 0824057872, 0824057872
  75. ^ Leader of the Jundallah Movemement, Abd Al-Malek Al-Rigi: We Train Fighters in the Mountains and Send Them into Iran. October 17, 2008
  76. ^ Muhammad Muhsin Khan "The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih al-Bukhari, volume 3" 1984 ISBN 81-7151-016-7, item 867
  77. ^ Tarikh Tabri Volume 18 page 201 ; al Istiab, Volume 1 page 49, Chapter: Busar; al Isaba Volume, 1 page 289, Translation No. 642, Busar bin Irtat; Asadul Ghaba, Volume 1 page 113, Topic: Busar bin Irtat; Tarikh Ibn Asakir, Volume 3 page 225 ; Tarikh Asim Kufi, page 308.
  78. ^ al Bidaya wa al Nihaya, Volume 8 page 52 ; Asad'ul Ghaba Volume, 1 page 846, Dhikr Umro bin Hamiq; Tarikh Yaqubi, volume 2 page 200, 50 H; Al Bidayah wal Nihayah, Volume 8 page 52, death of Amro bin al-Hamiq al-Khazai.
  79. ^ al Bidaya wa al Nihaya, Volume 8 page 48, Dhikr 50 Hijri; al Istiab, Volume 1 page 363 ; al Isaba, Volume 4 page 623, Translation No. 5822 ; Asadul Ghaba, Volume 1 page 846, Amr bin al-Hamiq al-Khazai; Tabaqat al Kubra, Volume 6 page 25 ; Tarikh Kamil, Volume 3 page 240 Dhikr 51 Hijri; Risala Abu Bakr Khawarzmi, page 122 ; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, Volume 3 page 12 ; al Maarif, page 127; History of Tabari, Volume 18 page 137
  80. ^ Tadhirathul Khawwas, page 64 ; Muruj al Dhahab, Volume 3 page 420 ; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, Volume 2 page 191; Tarikh Kamil, Volume 3 page 179 ; Tarikh Tabari, English translation Volume 18 pages 144-146 ; Habib al Sayyar, Volume 1 page 72 ; Tabaqat al Kubra, Volume 6 page 213
  81. ^ al Bidaya wa al Nihaya, Volume 8 page 53 Dhikr 51 Hijri; Tarikh Kamil, Volume 3 page 249 Dhikr 51 Hijri; Tarikh ibn Asakir, Volume 12 page 227 Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, Volume 3 page 13 Dhikr 51 Hijri; al Isaba, Volume 1 page 313 Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Asad'ul Ghaba, Volume 1 page 244 Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Shadharat ul Dhahab, Volume 1 page 57 Dhikr 51 Hijri; Tabaqat al Kubra, Volume 6 page 217 Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Mustadrak al Hakim, Volume 3 page 468-470 Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Akhbar al Tawaal, page 186 Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Tarikh Abu'l Fida, page 166 Dhikr 51 Hijri; Muruj al Dhahab, Volume 3 page 12 Dhikr 53 Hijri; Tarikh Yaqubi, Volume 2 page 219
  82. ^ al-Bidaya wa al-Nihaya, Volume 8 page 55 ; Kanz al Ummal, Volume 3 page 88 ; Tarikh al Islam by Dhahabi Volume 2 page 217 ; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, Volume 3 page 12 ; al Isaba, page 355 Dhikr Hujr; al-Istiab, Volume 1 page 97.
  83. ^ Qadhi Abi Bakar al-Arabi. 'Awasim min al Qawasim' p.341 ; Allamah Muhibuddin al-Khateeb
  84. ^ Bidayah wal Nihayah, Volume 8 page 52; Tarikh Kamil, Volume 3 page 245 ; History of Tabari, Volume 18 page 151.
  85. ^ Jami` at-Tirmidhi, Hadith #3800
  86. ^ 41:6968
  87. ^ The Battle of Islam at Siffin
  88. ^ Sunni: Tarikh Kamil, Volume 3 page 194 Dhikr 40 Hijri; Shadharath al Dhahab, page 64 Dhikr 58 Hijri; Tarikh Taabari (English translation) Volume 18 pages 207-208; Murujh al Dhahab, Volume 3 page 30 ; al Istiab, Volume 1 page 49, Chapter: Busar; Tarikh ibn Asakir, Volume 10 page 146; Asad'ul Ghaba Volume 1 page 213 Dhikr Busar; Tarikh Islam by Dhahabi, Volume 2 page 187. Shia: 21:6 Secrets of Muawiyah from Al-Amali: The Dictations of Sheikh al-Mufid
  89. ^ Shia: 21:6 Secrets of Muawiyah from Al-Amali: The Dictations of Sheikh al-Mufid
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Moawiyah".
Mu'awiya I
Sunni Islam titles
Preceded by Caliph
661–680 		Succeeded by
Regnal titles
Preceded by
none
 Umayyad Caliph
661–680 		Succeeded by
Regnal titles
Preceded by Governor of Al-Sham
640–656 		under direct control of Muawiya I

Template:Persondata

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mu%27awiya_I&oldid=550942427"