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*Making of ''Minasa'' - concoctions made from the ''pangalap'' ingredients
*Making of ''Minasa'' - concoctions made from the ''pangalap'' ingredients
*Rubbing with ''Lana'' - medicinal oil concocted from [[coconut]]
*Rubbing with ''Lana'' - medicinal oil concocted from [[coconut]]

== Belief systems ==
{{Main article|Babaylan|Philippine mythology|Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines|Indigenous religious beliefs of the Philippines|Deities of Philippine mythology|Religion in pre-colonial Philippines}}
[[File:Potters at work. The one on the right is a man in woman's garb (Itneg people, 1922).jpg|thumb|[[Itneg people|Itneg]] potters, the person on the right is biologically male but identifies as female. She is wearing women's clothes and is accepted by society.]]
[[File:Banaue Rice Terraces Harvest.jpg|thumb|An Ifugao woman chanting the sacred and [[UNESCO]]-inscribed [[Hudhud ni Aliguyon]] while harvesting rice at the [[Banaue Rice Terraces]].]]
[[File:Fluvial Parade 2013 (2).jpg|thumb|[[Waray people|Warays]] on boats during the Padul-Ong Fluvial Parade in Boronggan (place of fog), which celebrates the indigenous “Lady in White” who is believed to regularly visit the Hamorawan Spring since ancient times, blessing it with healing waters. Christians who participate in the festival add the Virgin Mary as one of their honorees, side-by-side with the Hamorawan deity.<ref>https://www.choosephilippines.com/do/festivals/4567/borongan-padul-ong-festival/</ref>]]
[[File:NAVS Farm with Mount Madja-as in The Seawall in Culasi, Antique, Philippines.png|thumb|[[Mount Madia-as]], the sacred mountain home of the Panay god of death, Sidapa. The mountain is where Sidapa measures mortal lives through an ancient sacred tree.<ref name="ReferenceE"/>]]
[[Philippine mythology|Anitism]] has a diverse array of traditions and rituals involved. The religion, which is a set of indigenous religions originating from the [[Philippines]], comprise a unique blend of shamanism, animism, ancestral worship, nature worship, communal harmony, cultural trading, and progressive ideals. Despite the age of Anitism, which has existed even before the arrival of colonizers in the 16th century, many of the beliefs in Anitism have been compared to modern progressive ethics by recent generations. The beliefs revere both [[women]] and [[Babaylan|feminized men]].<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/> Women and men enjoyed the same rights and privileges.<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/> Due to the equal treatment of women and men under the beliefs, any gender can ascend the headship of families, villages, and cities.<ref>The History of Filipino Women's Writings
by Riitta Vartti, An article from
Firefly - Filipino Short Stories, Helsinki 2001</ref> Women can also ascend the throne of a nation. In some cases, some queens have ascended as sole ruler, superior to her consort.<ref>Ibn Battuta, p. 888.</ref><ref name="filipiknow.net">{{Cite web|url=https://filipiknow.net/filipina-muslims-philippine-history/|title=8 Filipina Queens and Princesses Too Awesome for Disney Movies|date=February 26, 2019|website=FilipiKnow}}</ref><ref name="Odal2000">{{cite book|title=The River Dwellers|first=Grace|work=Pasig : The River of Life|publisher=Unilever Philippines|year=2000|isbn=|editor-last=Alejandro|editor-first=Reynaldo Gamboa|location=|pages=43–66|editor-last2=Yuson|editor-first2=Alfred A.|editor-link2=Alfred Yuson|author=Odal-Devora}}</ref>

[[Virginity]] is not an issue, and children and elders are given the same respect,<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/> as children are also noted as capable of things that an elder can do if given the proper training. Unwed mothers or fathers are not shamed,<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/> as many of the Anitist gods and goddesses are the same.<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/> [[Divorce]] is also practiced, and was highly accepted. Both women and men can initiate a divorce.<ref name=cnnphilippines>{{cite web|url=http://cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/2019/4/15/philippine-feminism.html|title=A beginner's guide to Philippine feminism|website=cnnphilippines}}</ref><ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/><ref name="ReferenceA">"Philippine Gay Culture: Binabae to Bakla, Silahis to MSM (Queer Asia)", J. Neil Garcia, {{ISBN|978-9622099852}}</ref> The practice of [[abortion]] is widely accepted.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Henley |first1=David |last2=Nordholt |first2=Henk Schulte |title=Environment, Trade and Society in Southeast Asia: A Longue Durée Perspective |date=2015 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004288041 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bme8rQEACAAJ&d=&redir_esc=y |language=en |chapter=Chapter 6 - The Longue Durée in Filipino Demographic History The Role of Fertility Prior to 1800 (Linda Newson) |quote=Abortions were also common for unmarried women.}}</ref>

After marriage, women did not lose their name.<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/> In fact, if a woman was especially distinguished, either from her own merit or her family's merit, her husband usually took her name as she was seen as far [[superior (hierarchy)|superior]] to her husband.<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/> During this time, women and feminized men were also given high distinction as many of which took on the role of [[shaman]]s (such as [[babaylan]]s), who also took on the role as interim head<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/> of the domain every time a [[datu]], a male or female ruler,<ref>The History of Filipino Women's Writings
by Riitta Vartti, An article from
Firefly - Filipino Short Stories, Helsinki 2001</ref> is absent or goes into a journey.<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/> Furthermore, in some societies, biological sex did not always define a person's identity, as some of those who were born as a man were fully accepted by society as a woman (such as the mentefuwaleys), and vice versa,<ref>Wisdom from a Rainforest: The Spiritual Journey of an Anthropologist (1998), Stuart A. Schlegel, University of Georgia Press</ref><ref>https://www.manilatimes.net/2018/07/12/opinion/analysis/learning-from-the-teduray-transgender-women-are-real-women-2/418546/</ref> an early notion of [[transgender]] acceptance and inclusion in a religious society.<ref>https://outragemag.com/learning-from-the-teduray-people-valuing-self-determination/</ref>

The people can freely marry and have children,<ref name="liturgy">{{cite book|author=Agnes M. Brazal |editor =Jozef Lamberts|title =Liturgy and Inculturation: Introduction|chapter =Inculturation: An Interpretative Model|publisher =Peeters|series =Studies in Liturgy|volume=77|year =1996|isbn =9789068318371|chapter-url=https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=Chp1Jlqv1GQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> including male ''asog'' who were recorded by early Spanish colonists as being married to other men, an early notion of religious [[same-sex marriage]], although the distinction between heterosexual and homosexual marriages was never given as both were viewed as equally the same thing.<ref name="garcia2008"/><ref name="kroeber"/><ref group="note" name="auto"/><ref name="brewer99"/>

Deities in the Anitist pantheons have a diverse array of biological sexes, sexual orientations and gender identities. The Tagalog supreme deity [[Bathala]]<ref>Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs (2017), Jean-Paul G. Potet, Lulu Press Inc., p. 22</ref><ref>Conner, Randy P.; Sparks, David Hatfield; Sparks, Mariya (1998). Cassell's Encyclopedia of Queer Myth, Symbol and Spirit. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-70423-7. p. 84, "Bathala"</ref> and the Tagalog goddess of fertility and the homeless Lakapati are both [[intersex]],<ref>Stewardship Towards God's Creation Among Early Filipinos: Implications to Inculturated Faith JLC Piscos - Divina M. Edralin, 2019</ref> while the Waray supreme deity has two gender aspects in one body named Makapatag and Malaon.<ref>Demetrio, F. R., & Cordero-Fernando, G. (1991). The Soul Book . Quezon City: GCF Books</ref> The Bisaya supreme god, Kaptan, is also known for his attraction to both genders.<ref>John Maurice Miller, Philippine Folklore Stories (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1904)</ref><ref>https://filipiknow.net/the-ancient-visayan-deities-of-philippine-mythology/</ref> [[Binukot]] warriors in some epics have been depicted to possess powers of gender transitioning.<ref>Change Me Into A Chieftain: Resistance and Persistence in Upland Panay Island, Philippines, D. Gowey, Arizona State University</ref>

When the Spaniards came and started colonizing the Philippine islands in 1521, the colonialists and friars were horrified<ref>The History of Filipino Women's Writings
by Riitta Vartti, An article from
Firefly - Filipino Short Stories, Helsinki 2001</ref> in the perspective of the natives towards [[women]], feminized men, [[marriage]], [[divorce]], and [[virginity]]. The Spaniards acknowledged the "superior quality of the indigenous"; however, they also sought out to remold many precolonial concepts of equality, which led to much colonially-imposed [[hate crime]]s<ref>"Further Validation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale in the Philippines", Raymond Aquino Macapagal, University of the Philippines - Diliman, Philippine Journal of Psychology, 2013, 46(2), 49-59</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/> [[discrimination]], and gender inequality in the Philippines,<ref name="Kasaysayan 1998"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/> which continue to linger within Philippine society in modern times.<ref>The use of quantile regressions in estimating gender wage differentials: a case study of the Philippines
C Sakellariou - Applied Economics, 2004</ref><ref>Gender differences in land inheritance, schooling and lifetime income: evidence from the rural Philippines
J Estudillo, A Quisumbing, K Otsuka, 2001</ref><ref>Homonegativity in southeast Asia: Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam - Philippines section, EJ Manalastas, BA Torres, 2017</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 11:13, 16 February 2020

This article is about the ethnic religions of the Philippines in general. For the various applications of the specific religious terms "Anito" and "Anitism", see Anito.
Wooden images of the ancestors (Bulul) in a museum in Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines

Various terms have been used to refer to the religious beliefs of the 175 ethnolinguistic groups of the Philippines, where each had their own form of indigenous government prior to colonization from Islam and Spain. They are characterized as being animistic, and have been collectively referred to as Anitism or Bathalism or the more modern and less Tagalog-centric Dayawism.[1][2][3][4]

The profusion of different terms arises from the fact that these indigenous religions mostly flourished in the pre-colonial period before the Philippines had become a single nation.[5] The various peoples of the Philippines spoke different languages and thus used different terms to describe their religious beliefs. While these beliefs can be treated as separate religions, scholars have noted that they follow a "common structural framework of ideas" which can be studied together.[3]

Some writers have noted that these beliefs have similarities with the Shinto religion of Japan, although they do not draw a historical linkage between the two belief systems.[6] More historically linked are the various indigenous religious beliefs the various religions of Oceania and the maritime Southeast Asia, which draw their roots from Austronesian beliefs as those in the Philippines.[4][7]

As of 2010, an estimated 2% of the Philippine population identified as practicing indigenous beliefs - the majority of whom live in isolated areas where Islam, Catholicism, or Protestantism have not become dominant. Since the entrance of the 21st century, streams of Christian and Muslim Filipinos are steadily reverting to their indigenous ethnic religions that were once branded as lowly by Spanish, American, and Arabians colonizers, but have been affirmed by the social sciences as comprehensive and highly in nature.[8]

On the other hand, many aspects of these traditions have been integrated into the local practice of Catholicism and Islam, resulting in syncretistic practices called "Folk Catholicism"[1][2] and "Folk Islam".[5]

The folklore narratives associated with these religious beliefs constitute what is now called Philippine mythology, and is an important aspect of the study of Philippine culture and Filipino psychology.

Religious worldview

Main article: Anito
15th century bulul, an anito representation, with a pamahan (ceremonial bowl) in the Louvre Museum

Historian T. Valentino Sitoy, in his review of documents concerning pre-Spanish religious beliefs, notes that three core characteristics which shaped the religious worldview of Filipinos throughout the archipelago before the arrival of Spanish colonizers. First, Filipinos believed in the existence of parallel spirit world, which was invisible but had an influence on the visible world. Second, Filipinos believed that there were spirits (anito) everywhere - ranging from the high creator gods to minor spirits that lived in the environment such as trees or rocks or creeks. Third, Filipinos believed that events in the human world were influenced by the actions and interventions of these spirit beings.[3]

Anito were the ancestor spirits (umalagad), or nature spirits and deities (diwata) in the indigenous animistic religions of precolonial Philippines. Paganito (also maganito or anitohan) refers to a séance, often accompanied by other rituals or celebrations, in which a shaman (Visayan: babaylan, Tagalog: katalonan) acts as a medium to communicate directly with the spirits. When a nature spirit or deity is specifically involved, the ritual is called pagdiwata (also magdiwata or diwatahan). Anito can also refer to the act of worship or a religious sacrifice to a spirit.[5][4][9]

When Spanish missionaries arrived in the Philippines, the word "anito" came to be associated with the physical representations of spirits that featured prominently in paganito rituals. During the American rule of the Philippines (1898–1946), the meaning of the Spanish word idolo ("a thing worshiped") has been further conflated with the English word "idol", and thus anito has come to refer almost exclusively to the carved figures or statues (taotao) of ancestral and nature spirits.[5][10]

The belief in anito is sometimes referred to as anitism in scholarly literature (Spanish: anitismo or anitería).[11]

Deities and spirits

Main article: Deities of Philippine mythology

Creator gods in Filipino religions

Many indigenous Filipino cultures assert the existence of a high god, creator god, or sky god.[4] Among the Tagalogs, the supreme god was known as Bathala, who was additionally described as Maykapal (the all-powerful) or Lumikha (the creator). Among the Visayan peoples the creator God is referred to as Laon, meaning "the ancient one." Among the Manuvu, the highest god was called Manama. Among most of the Cordilleran peoples (with the Apayao region as an exception), the creator and supreme teacher is known as Kabuniyan.[4]

In most cases, however, these gods were considered such great beings that they were too distant for ordinary people to approach.[2] People thus tended to pay more attention to "lesser gods" or "assistant deities" who could more easily approached, and whose wills could more easily be influenced.[4][2]

"Lower gods" in Filipino religions

Lesser deities in Filipino religions generally fit into three broad categories: nature spirits residing in the environment, such as a mountain or a tree; guardian spirits in charge of specific aspects of daily life such as hunting or fishing; and deified ancestors or tribal heroes. These categories frequently overlap, with individual deities falling into two or more categories, and in some instances, deities evolve from one role to another, as when a tribal hero known for fishing becomes a guardian spirit associated with hunting.[4]

Filipino folk healers

During the pre-Hispanic period, babaylan, functioned as shamans and spiritual leaders and mananambal were for folk healers. At the onset of the Colonial era, the suppression of the babaylans and the native Filipino religion gave rise to the albularyo. By exchanging the native prayers and spells with Catholic oraciones and Christian prayers, the albularyo was able to synchronize the ancient mode of healing with the new religion.

Albularyos employ herbs, alum, coconut oil, etc., in their healing practices as well as various prayers, chants and "supernatural" cures—especially for cases involving supernatural causes. As time progressed, the albularyo became more prominent in rural areas in the Philippines. Lacking access to scientific medical practices, rural Filipinos trusted the albularyos to rid them of common (and sometimes believed to be supernatural) sicknesses and diseases.

However, the role of the albularyo was slowly overshadowed by the rise of modern medical facilities. Urbanization gave the masses access to more scientific treatments, exchanging the chants and herbs of the albularyos with the newer technologies offered by the medical field. Still, albularyos flourish in many rural areas in the Philippines where medical facilities are still expensive and sometimes inaccessible.

Rituals

Some of the rituals observed by Filipino Folk Healers include:

  • Pangalap - the aforementioned yearly search for concoction ingredients
  • Halad - ritual offering of food and drink to honor the spirits of the dead
  • Palínà - ritual fumigation; called tu-ob in the islands of Panay and Negros
  • Pangadlip - the chopping or slicing of pangalap ingredients
  • Pagpagong - burning or reducing the ingredients into charcoal or ashes
  • Making of Minasa - concoctions made from the pangalap ingredients
  • Rubbing with Lana - medicinal oil concocted from coconut

Belief systems

Main articles: Babaylan, Philippine mythology, Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines, Indigenous religious beliefs of the Philippines, Deities of Philippine mythology, and Religion in pre-colonial Philippines
Itneg potters, the person on the right is biologically male but identifies as female. She is wearing women's clothes and is accepted by society.
An Ifugao woman chanting the sacred and UNESCO-inscribed Hudhud ni Aliguyon while harvesting rice at the Banaue Rice Terraces.
File:Fluvial Parade 2013 (2).jpg
Warays on boats during the Padul-Ong Fluvial Parade in Boronggan (place of fog), which celebrates the indigenous “Lady in White” who is believed to regularly visit the Hamorawan Spring since ancient times, blessing it with healing waters. Christians who participate in the festival add the Virgin Mary as one of their honorees, side-by-side with the Hamorawan deity.[12]
File:NAVS Farm with Mount Madja-as in The Seawall in Culasi, Antique, Philippines.png
Mount Madia-as, the sacred mountain home of the Panay god of death, Sidapa. The mountain is where Sidapa measures mortal lives through an ancient sacred tree.[13]

Anitism has a diverse array of traditions and rituals involved. The religion, which is a set of indigenous religions originating from the Philippines, comprise a unique blend of shamanism, animism, ancestral worship, nature worship, communal harmony, cultural trading, and progressive ideals. Despite the age of Anitism, which has existed even before the arrival of colonizers in the 16th century, many of the beliefs in Anitism have been compared to modern progressive ethics by recent generations. The beliefs revere both women and feminized men.[14] Women and men enjoyed the same rights and privileges.[14] Due to the equal treatment of women and men under the beliefs, any gender can ascend the headship of families, villages, and cities.[15] Women can also ascend the throne of a nation. In some cases, some queens have ascended as sole ruler, superior to her consort.[16][17][18]

Virginity is not an issue, and children and elders are given the same respect,[14] as children are also noted as capable of things that an elder can do if given the proper training. Unwed mothers or fathers are not shamed,[14] as many of the Anitist gods and goddesses are the same.[14] Divorce is also practiced, and was highly accepted. Both women and men can initiate a divorce.[19][14][20] The practice of abortion is widely accepted.[21]

After marriage, women did not lose their name.[14] In fact, if a woman was especially distinguished, either from her own merit or her family's merit, her husband usually took her name as she was seen as far superior to her husband.[14] During this time, women and feminized men were also given high distinction as many of which took on the role of shamans (such as babaylans), who also took on the role as interim head[14] of the domain every time a datu, a male or female ruler,[22] is absent or goes into a journey.[14] Furthermore, in some societies, biological sex did not always define a person's identity, as some of those who were born as a man were fully accepted by society as a woman (such as the mentefuwaleys), and vice versa,[23][24] an early notion of transgender acceptance and inclusion in a religious society.[25]

The people can freely marry and have children,[26] including male asog who were recorded by early Spanish colonists as being married to other men, an early notion of religious same-sex marriage, although the distinction between heterosexual and homosexual marriages was never given as both were viewed as equally the same thing.[27][28][note 1][29]

Deities in the Anitist pantheons have a diverse array of biological sexes, sexual orientations and gender identities. The Tagalog supreme deity Bathala[30][31] and the Tagalog goddess of fertility and the homeless Lakapati are both intersex,[32] while the Waray supreme deity has two gender aspects in one body named Makapatag and Malaon.[33] The Bisaya supreme god, Kaptan, is also known for his attraction to both genders.[34][35] Binukot warriors in some epics have been depicted to possess powers of gender transitioning.[36]

When the Spaniards came and started colonizing the Philippine islands in 1521, the colonialists and friars were horrified[37] in the perspective of the natives towards women, feminized men, marriage, divorce, and virginity. The Spaniards acknowledged the "superior quality of the indigenous"; however, they also sought out to remold many precolonial concepts of equality, which led to much colonially-imposed hate crimes[38][20] discrimination, and gender inequality in the Philippines,[14][20] which continue to linger within Philippine society in modern times.[39][40][41]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Almocera, Ruel A., (2005) Popular Filipino Spiritual Beliefs with a proposed Theological Response. in Doing Theology in the Philippines. Suk, John., Ed. Mandaluyong: OMF Literature Inc. Pp 78-98
  2. ^ a b c d Maggay, Melba Padilla (1999). Filipino Religious Consciousness. Quezon City: Institute for Studies in Asian Church and Culture.
  3. ^ a b c Sitoy, T. Valentino, Jr. (1985). A history of Christianity in the Philippines Volume 1: The Initial Encounter. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers. ISBN 9711002558.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Demetrio, Francisco R.; Cordero-Fernando, Gilda; Nakpil-Zialcita, Roberto B.; Feleo, Fernando (1991). The Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine Pagan Religion. GCF Books, Quezon City. ASIN B007FR4S8G.
  5. ^ a b c d Scott, William Henry (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 971-550-135-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ Gutierrez, Anna Katrina (2017-06-15). Mixed Magic: Global-local Dialogues in Fairy Tales for Young Readers. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 9789027265456.
  7. ^ Osborne, Milton (2004). Southeast Asia: An Introductory History (Ninth ed.). Australia: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-74114-448-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  8. ^ Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Philippines. Pew Research Center. 2010.
  9. ^ Antonio Sánchez de la Rosa (1895). Diccionario Hispano-Bisaya para las provincias de Samar y Leyte, Volumes 1-2. Tipo-Litografia de Chofre y Comp. p. 414.
  10. ^ Frederic H. Sawyer (1900). The Inhabitants of the Philippines. Charles Scribner's Sons.
  11. ^ Stephen K. Hislop (1971). "Anitism: a survey of religious beliefs native to the Philippines" (PDF). Asian Studies. 9 (2): 144–156.
  12. ^ https://www.choosephilippines.com/do/festivals/4567/borongan-padul-ong-festival/
  13. ^ Cite error: The named reference ReferenceE was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cite error: The named reference Kasaysayan 1998 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  15. ^ The History of Filipino Women's Writings by Riitta Vartti, An article from Firefly - Filipino Short Stories, Helsinki 2001
  16. ^ Ibn Battuta, p. 888.
  17. ^ "8 Filipina Queens and Princesses Too Awesome for Disney Movies". FilipiKnow. February 26, 2019.
  18. ^ Odal-Devora, Grace (2000). Alejandro, Reynaldo Gamboa; Yuson, Alfred A. (eds.). The River Dwellers. Unilever Philippines. pp. 43–66. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  19. ^ "A beginner's guide to Philippine feminism". cnnphilippines.
  20. ^ a b c "Philippine Gay Culture: Binabae to Bakla, Silahis to MSM (Queer Asia)", J. Neil Garcia, ISBN 978-9622099852
  21. ^ Henley, David; Nordholt, Henk Schulte (2015). "Chapter 6 - The Longue Durée in Filipino Demographic History The Role of Fertility Prior to 1800 (Linda Newson)". Environment, Trade and Society in Southeast Asia: A Longue Durée Perspective. Brill. p. 85. ISBN 9789004288041. Abortions were also common for unmarried women.
  22. ^ The History of Filipino Women's Writings by Riitta Vartti, An article from Firefly - Filipino Short Stories, Helsinki 2001
  23. ^ Wisdom from a Rainforest: The Spiritual Journey of an Anthropologist (1998), Stuart A. Schlegel, University of Georgia Press
  24. ^ https://www.manilatimes.net/2018/07/12/opinion/analysis/learning-from-the-teduray-transgender-women-are-real-women-2/418546/
  25. ^ https://outragemag.com/learning-from-the-teduray-people-valuing-self-determination/
  26. ^ Agnes M. Brazal (1996). "Inculturation: An Interpretative Model". In Jozef Lamberts (ed.). Liturgy and Inculturation: Introduction. Studies in Liturgy. Vol. 77. Peeters. ISBN 9789068318371.
  27. ^ Cite error: The named reference garcia2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  28. ^ Cite error: The named reference kroeber was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  29. ^ Cite error: The named reference brewer99 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  30. ^ Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs (2017), Jean-Paul G. Potet, Lulu Press Inc., p. 22
  31. ^ Conner, Randy P.; Sparks, David Hatfield; Sparks, Mariya (1998). Cassell's Encyclopedia of Queer Myth, Symbol and Spirit. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-70423-7. p. 84, "Bathala"
  32. ^ Stewardship Towards God's Creation Among Early Filipinos: Implications to Inculturated Faith JLC Piscos - Divina M. Edralin, 2019
  33. ^ Demetrio, F. R., & Cordero-Fernando, G. (1991). The Soul Book . Quezon City: GCF Books
  34. ^ John Maurice Miller, Philippine Folklore Stories (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1904)
  35. ^ https://filipiknow.net/the-ancient-visayan-deities-of-philippine-mythology/
  36. ^ Change Me Into A Chieftain: Resistance and Persistence in Upland Panay Island, Philippines, D. Gowey, Arizona State University
  37. ^ The History of Filipino Women's Writings by Riitta Vartti, An article from Firefly - Filipino Short Stories, Helsinki 2001
  38. ^ "Further Validation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale in the Philippines", Raymond Aquino Macapagal, University of the Philippines - Diliman, Philippine Journal of Psychology, 2013, 46(2), 49-59
  39. ^ The use of quantile regressions in estimating gender wage differentials: a case study of the Philippines C Sakellariou - Applied Economics, 2004
  40. ^ Gender differences in land inheritance, schooling and lifetime income: evidence from the rural Philippines J Estudillo, A Quisumbing, K Otsuka, 2001
  41. ^ Homonegativity in southeast Asia: Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam - Philippines section, EJ Manalastas, BA Torres, 2017

External links


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