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Antisemitism in Islam

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This article is about the relationship between Islam and antisemitism. For etymology and semantics of the term, see antisemitism.
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This article covers:

  • The prevalence of antisemitism amongst Muslims - and whether it is more or less common than amongst people of other religions.
  • The positions of the various branches of Islam on antisemitism and Jews.
  • Accusations of antisemitism made against Islam, and their consequences.

Jews in the Qur'an

The Qur'an contains attacks on Jews for their refusal to recognize Muhammad as a prophet of God,[1] and the Muslim holy text defined the Arab and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially in the periods when Islamic fundamentalism was on the rise.

In those suras (chapters) of the Qur'an that are traditionally dated to the Meccan period of Muhammad's lifetime, Jews are usually referred to as Banu Israil ("children of Israel"). In the later, Medinan suras, the word Yahud ("Jews") first appears as a designation of Jews. The change in name was accompanied by a shift in attitude. At that time, Muhammad faced rejection and ridicule on part of the Jews of Medina, and he came to adopt a radically more negative attitude toward Jews, although such view first evolved in the latest period of Muhammad's life in Medina. Thus, where as Banu Israil appears in both positive and negative contexts, the word Yahud usually contains negative connotations.[2] The Qur'an states that Jews betrayed the teaching of their prophet Moses and that if they were to uphold the teaching of Moses that they would be a saved nation.

The words "humility" and "humilitation" occur frequently in the Qur'an and later Muslim literature to describe the condition to which Jews must be reduced as a just punishment for their past rebelliousness, the punishment that shows itself in the defeat they suffered at the hands of Christians and Muslims. The standard Quranic reference to Jews is the verse 2:61,[3] which says:

And abasement and poverty were pitched upon them,

and they were laden with the burden of God's anger;
that, because they had disbelieved the signs of God
and slain the Prophets unrightfully; that,

because they disobeyed, and were transgressors.[4]

Cowardice, greed, and chicanery are but a few of the characteristics that the Qur'an ascribes to the Jews.[5] The Qur'an further associates Jews with interconfessional strife and rivalry (Qur'an [Quran 2:113]). It claims that Jews believe that they alone are beloved of God (Qur'an [Quran 5:18]) and only they will achieve salvation ([Quran 2:111]). According to the Qur'an, Jews blasphemously claim that Ezra is the son of God, as Christians claim Jesus is (Qur'an [Quran 9:30]) and that God’s hand is fettered (Qur'an [Quran 5:64]). Together with the pagans, Jews are “the most vehement of men in enmity to those who believe” (Qur'an [Quran 5:82]). Some of those who are Jews[6] "pervert words from their meanings" (Qur'an [Quran 4:44]), have committed wrongdoing, for which God has "forbidden some good things that were previously permitted them" (Qur'an [Quran 4:160]), they listen for the sake of mendacity (Qur'an [Quran 5:41]), and some of them have taken usury and will receive "a painful doom" (Qur'an [Quran 4:161]).[2] The Qur'an gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, "...but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers."(Qur'an [Quran 3:54]) In the Muslim view, the crucifixion of Jesus was an illusion, and thus the Jewish plots against him ended in a sheer failure.[7] In numerous verses (3:63; 3:71; 4:46; 160-161; 5:41-44, 63-64, 82; 6:92)[8] the Qur'an accuses Jews of obscuring and perverting the Scripture.[9]

Muslim beliefs that certain Jews had been transformed into apes and pigs

Template:Muslims and controversies A number of verses in the Qur'an refer to Jews being transformed into apes or pigs, specifically Suras [Quran 5:60], [Quran 2:65] and [Quran 7:166]. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

"And well ye knew those amongst you who transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath: We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected." "[Quran 2:65]
"Say: "Shall I point out to you something much worse than this, (as judged) by the treatment it received from Allah? those who incurred the curse of Allah and His wrath, those of whom some He transformed into apes and swine, those who worshipped evil;- these are (many times) worse in rank, and far more astray from the even path!" [Quran 5:60]
"When in their insolence they transgressed (all) prohibitions, We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected." "[Quran 7:166]

Muslim scholars differ as to what happened. Some suggest that the people were indeed transformed into animals. Others, however, argue that the trangressors began to behave in the manner of animals.[15] Furthermore, Sayyid Qutb argues that there was no transformation (physical or otherwise), rather the Quran only observes that the people began to act like animals (by their free will) when they forsaked God's laws (regarding Sabbath) and followed their physical desires.[16]

Muslim scholars, however, agree that in any case, the punishment was not meted on all inhabitants. In the city there were inhabitants that sinned and those that didn't. The inhabitants of this Jewish settlement who were sincere to God were saved and are considered with "honour".[17]

According to Khaleel Mohammed, "many Muslim preachers use the verses in a manner that is totally wrong, demonizing all Jews."[18] Thus Hamas says:

"Allah did not mete out the punishment of transformation on any nation except the Jews. The significance of it is actual change in the appearance of the Jew and perfect transformation from human to bestial condition... from human appearance to the form of genuine apes, pigs, mice, and lizards..." [19]

In 888, in Palermo, Sicily, the Muslim Aghlabid dynasty (9th through 11th century, North Africa) issued an order that Jews wear a patch that had an image of a monkey, and affix the same image to their homes. For Christians, the image was that of a pig. [20]

A May 2006 study of Saudi Arabia's revised schoolbook curriculum discovered that the 8th grade books included the following statements:

They are the people of the Sabbath, whose young people God turned into apes, and whose old people God turned into swine to punish them. As cited in Ibn Abbas: The apes are Jews, the keepers of the Sabbath; while the swine are the Christian infidels of the communion of Jesus.

Some of the people of the Sabbath were punished by being turned into apes and swine. Some of them were made to worship the devil, and not God, through consecration, sacrifice, prayer, appeals for help, and other types of worship. Some of the Jews worship the devil. Likewise, some members of this nation worship devil, and not God.[21]

Jews in the hadith and biographies of Muhammad

See also Muhammad and the Jews of Medina

Muhammad's attitude towards Jews was shaped by his failure to convert them to the religion he preached. During his life, Jews lived in the Arabian Peninsula, especially in and around Medina. They refused to accept Muhammad's teachings, and eventually he fought them, defeated them, and most of them were killed.[22] The traditional biographies of Muhammad describe the expulsion of the Banu Qaynuqa in the post Badr period, after a marketplace quarrel broke out between the Muslims and Jews in Medina[23][24][25] and Muhammad's negotiations with the tribe failed.[26] Following his deafeat in the Battle of Uhud, Muhammad claimed to have received a divine revelation that the Jewish tribe of the Banu Nadir wanted to assassinate him. Muhammad besieged the Banu Nadir and expelled them from Medina.[27] The men of the third tribe, the Banu Qurayza, were killed and the women and children were enslaved in accordance with a judgment made by Sa'd ibn Mua'dh and approved by Muhammad.[28] Muhammad also fought a battle with the Jews of Khaybar.

Just like the Qur'an, the hadith (recordings of deeds and sayings attributed to Muhammad) use both the terms Banu Israil and Yahud in relation to Jews, the latter term becoming ever more frequent and appearing mostly in negative context. The rabbis of Medina are singled out as "men whose malice and enmity was aimed at the Apostle of God [i.e., Muhammad]". Jews appear in the biographies of Muhammad not only as malicious, but also deceitful, cowardly, and totally lacking resolve. Their ignominy stands in marked contrast to Muslim heroism, and in general, conforms to the Quranic image of "wretchedness and baseness stamped upon them" (Qur'an 2:61).[2]

The hadith continue the theme of the Jewish hostility toward Muslims. One hadith says: "A Jew will not be found alone with a Muslim without plotting to kill him."[29] According to another hadith, Muhammad said: "The Hour will not be established until you fight with the Jews, and the stone behind which a Jew will be hiding will say. 'O Muslim! There is a Jew hiding behind me, so kill him.'" (Sahih Bukhari 4:52.177). This hadith has been quoted countless times, and it has become a part of the charter of Hamas.[30]

Antisemitism in pre-modern Islam

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Bernard Lewis states that there is little sign of any deep-rooted emotional hostility directed against Jews or any other group such as the antisemitism of the Christian world. There were however clearly negative attitudes, which were in part the "normal" feelings of a dominant group towards subject groups (which exists in virtually any society); in part, more specifically, the contempt of the Muslim for non-believers who willfully choose to remain in their disbelief while they had the opportunity to accept the truth; in part certain specific prejudices directed against one or other group and not against the rest. [31]

Lewis states that in contrast to Christian antisemitism, attitude of Muslims toward non-Muslims is not one of hate or fear or envy, but rather simply contempt. This contempt is expressed in various ways such as abundance of polemic literature attacking the Christians and occasionally also the Jews. "The negative attributes ascribed to the subject religions and their followers are are usually expressed in religious and social terms, very rarely in ethnic or racial terms, though this does sometimes occur." The language of abuse is often quite strong. The conventional epithets are apes for Jews and pigs for Christians. Lewis continues with several examples of regulations which were symbolizing the inferiority that Non-Muslims living under the Muslim rule had to live with such as different formulae of greeting when addressing Jews and Christians than when addressing Muslims (both in conversations or correspondences) and forbidding Jews and Christians to choose names taken used by Muslims for their children by the Ottoman times. [32]

Anti-Semitism has not historically been prevalent in the Islamic world and at times Jews in Muslim countries were able to live in relative peace and thrive in the culture and economy. Although required to pay the Jizya and viewed as degraded Dhimmi, Jewish communities were largely left to their own devices. However, when Jews were perceived as having achieved too comfortable a position in Islamic society, anti-Semitism would surface.

Around 1000 CE the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim in Egypt ordered the killing of many Jews.[citation needed] In 1066, Joseph HaNagid, the Jewish vizier of Granada, Spain, was massacred along with the entire 5000 inhabitants of the Jewish quarter by incited Muslim mobs. Soon after its foundation by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, the Almoravid dynasty attempted to expel all Jews from Morocco in 1107; this effort soon petered out, and in fact one of their own military leaders was Jewish.[citation needed] However, its successor and overthrower the Almohad dynasty offered Christians and Jews the choice of conversion or expulsion; in 1165, one of their rulers ordered that all Jews in the country convert on pain of death (forcing the Jewish rabbi, theologian, philosopher, and physician Maimonides to feign conversion to Islam before fleeing the country). In Egypt, Maimonides resumed practising Judaism openly only to be accused of apostasy. He was saved from death by Saladin's chief administrator who held that conversion under coercion is invalid. [33]This Almoravid policy was reversed by the succeeding Marinid dynasty in 1212.[citation needed]

During his wanderings Maimonides also wrote the The Yemen Epistle, a famous letter to the Jews of Yemen, then experiencing severe persecution at the hands of their Muslim rulers. In it Maimonides describes his assessment of the treatment of the Jews at the hands of Muslims:

…on account of our sins God has cast us into the midst of this people, the nation of Ishmael [that is, Muslims], who persecute us severely, and who devise ways to harm us and to debase us…. No nation has ever done more harm to Israel. None has matched it in debasing and humiliating us. None has been able to reduce us as they have…. We have borne their imposed degradation, their lies, their absurdities, which are beyond human power to bear…. We have done as our sages of blessed memory have instructed us, bearing the lies and absurdities of Ishmael…. In spite of all this, we are not spared from the ferocity of their wickedness and their outbursts at any time. On the contrary, the more we suffer and choose to conciliate them, the more they choose to act belligerently toward us. [34]

Mark Cohen however quotes Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson, a specialist in medieval European Jewish history, who cautioned that Maimonides' condemnation of Islam should be understood "in the context of the harsh persections of the twelfth century and that furthermore one may say that he was insufficiently aware of the status of the Jews in Christian lands, or did not pay attention to this, when he wrote the letter". Cohen, continues by quoting Ben-Sasson who argues that Jews generally had a better legal and security situation in the Muslim countries than in Christendom. [35]

In 1465, Arab mobs in Fez slaughtered thousands of Jews, leaving only 11 alive, after an accusation that a Jewish deputy vizier treated a Muslim woman in "an offensive manner." The killings touched off a wave of similar massacres throughout Morocco. [36]

Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen in the middle ages. Jews were also forced to convert to Islam or face death in Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad at certain times. [37]

From the Middle Ages through the nineteenth century, Jews met significantly less official and popular anti-Semitism in Muslim countries than in Christian Europe. Jewish communities flourished in such places as Muslim-occupied Iberia, and when the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497, many sought refuge in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire, where they were welcomed by Sultan Beyazid II. Between 1504 and 1510, Barbarossa, on his voyages to Spain to rescue Muslims from the Inquisition, also evacuated a number of conversos who still practiced Judaism in secret. Later Ottoman Sultans also invited persecuted and legally disadvantaged Jews from Europe to settle in the Empire, particularly in Istanbul. Although in the seventeenth century, the reactionary Kadizadeli movement inspired some incidents of popular anti-Semitism, the Empire never adopted or endorsed anti-Semitic policies or practices, and by and large, protected the Jews from persecution. [citation needed]

Mass murders and ethnic cleansing of Jews did however continue to occur in Arab lands throughout the centuries especially in North Africa in Morocco, Libya and Algeria where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos. [38]

In the 19th century

British historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. In 1839, in the eastern Persian city of Meshed, a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the Torah scrolls. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted. In 1840, the Jews of Damascus were falsely accused of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having used their blood to bake Passover bread. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life. Throughout the 1860s, the Jews of Libya were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in Marrakech and Fez in Morroco. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in Tunis, and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on Jerba Island. In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in Denmat, Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1891, the leading Muslims in Jerusalem asked the Ottoman authorities in Constantinople to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving from Russia. In 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in Tripolitania. In 1903, 40 Jews were murdered in Taza, Morocco. In 1905, old laws were revived in Yemen forbidding Jews to raise their voices in front of Muslims, to build their houses higher than Muslims, or to engage in any traditional Muslim trade or occupation. [39]

Modern Muslim antisemitism

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 After the establishment of the State of Israel, European antisemitic ideas, including those of the Nazis were internalized and Islamized.[40] Standard antisemitic themes have become commonplace in the propaganda of Arab Islamic movements like Hizbullah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah, the Turkish Islamic party whose head served as prime minister in 1996-97."[40] The language of abuse is often quite strong; for example the conventional epithets for Jews and Christians are apes and pigs respectively (See the section on the 'Muslim belief that certain Jews had been transformed into apes and pigs' below).[41]

After a two-thirds majority international vote, the United Nations split the region of Palestine into a Jewish State and an Arab State; Jerusalem would be shared and controlled by the U.N. The Jewish leadership accepted the plan, but the Arab leadership rejected it.

On May 15, 1947 Azzam Pasha called for "jihad", saying: "This will be a war of extermination and a momentous massacre which will be spoken of like the Mongolian massacres and the Crusades."
Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Mufti of Jerusalem, announced, "I declare a holy war, my Muslim brothers! Murder the Jews! Murder them all!"[42] [43]

These incitements sparked anti Jewish riots which triggered the Jewish exodus from Arab lands.

The following sermon was delivered at the Sheik 'Ijlin Mosque in Gaza, Palestinian Authority. The speaker was Sheik Ibrahim Madhi, and it was broadcast on Palestinian Authority television. August 3, 2001

"We must all seek a role in the Jihad and the battle. We said and we still say: 'Even if we, the entire (Palestinian) people, stood in line and signed for the Jews that we want peace, they would not accept it. The Qur'an is very clear on this: The greatest enemies of the Islamic nation are the Jews, may Allah fight them...'
"All spears should be directed at the Jews, at the enemies of Allah, the nation that was cursed in Allah's book. Allah has described them as apes and pigs, the calf-worshipers, idol-worshipers.
"Whoever can fight them with his weapons, should go out [to the battle]; whoever can fight them with a machinegun, should go out; whoever can fight them with a sword or a knife, should go out; whoever can fight them with his hands, should go out; This is our destiny. The people who are the most hostile toward the believers are the Jews and the Polytheists... The Jews have exposed their fangs. Nothing will deter them, except the color of their filthy people's blood; nothing will deter them except for us voluntarily detonating ourselves in their midst. They have nuclear power, but we have the power of the belief in Allah..."
"The Prophet [Muhammad] said: 'The Jews will fight you, and [Allah] will establish you as rulers over them...' We blow them up in Hadera, we blow them up in Tel Aviv and in Netanya, and in this way, Allah establishes us as rulers over these gangs of vagabonds.
"Blessings for whoever assaulted a soldier... Blessings for whoever has raised his sons on the education of Jihad and Martyrdom; blessings for whoever has saved a bullet in order to stick it in a Jew's head."[citation needed]

The following sermon was also delivered at the Sheik 'Ijlin Mosque in Gaza, Palestinian Authority, The speaker was Sheik Ibrahim Madhi. June 8, 2001. In the name of Islam the speaker calls for suicide bombers to destroy all Jews.

"Allah is almighty. Had He wanted - He would have beaten them. But He tests you in suffering. We must prepare the ground for the army of Allah that is coming according to the [divine] predetermination. We must prepare a foothold for them. Allah willing, this unjust state will be erased - Israel will be erased; this unjust state, the United States, will be erased; this unjust state, Britain, will be erased - they who caused this people's Nakba [the 1948 'catastrophe']..."
"Blessings to whoever waged Jihad for the sake of Allah; blessings to whoever raided for the sake of Allah; blessings to whoever put a belt of explosives on his body or on his sons' and plunged into the midst of the Jews, crying "Allahu Akbar, praise to Allah, There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His messenger....Just as the building collapsed over the Jews in their sinful dancing floor [referring to the collapse of a wedding hall in Jerusalem] - I pray to Allah that this oppressive Knesset will collapse over the heads of the Jews."[citation needed]

The following sermon was delivered at the Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan mosque in Gaza. The speaker was Dr. Ahmad Abu Halabiya, an appointed member of the Palestinian Authority Fatwa Council, and is former acting Rector of the Islamic University in Gaza.

"Have no mercy on the Jews, no matter where they are, fight them, wherever you are. Wherever you meet them, kill them. Wherever you are, kill the Jews, the Americans, who are like them, and those who stand by them. They are all in one trench against the Arabs and the Moslems. ... It is forbidden to befriend Israelis or to aid them. Don't love them or enter into agreement with them, don't help them or sign accords with them. Anyone who does this is one of them. This is the word of Allah, blessed be He. They, they are the terrorists. They should be slaughtered. They should be murdered. Such is the word of Allah." [citation needed]

Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais, the leading imam of the Grand mosque located in the Islamic holy city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia, referred to Jews as "the scum of the human race" and "offspring of apes and pigs".[44] During his sermons he also said:

  • "The worst ... of the enemies of Islam are those... whom he... made monkeys and pigs, the aggressive Jews and oppressive Zionists and those that follow them: the callers of the trinity and the cross worshippers... those influenced by the rottenness of their ideas, and the poison of their cultures the followers of secularism..."[44]
  • "Monkeys and pigs and worshippers of false Gods who are the Jews and the Zionists."[44]

Many Islamic extremist groups seeking to eliminate the state of Israel, which they regard as occupied Muslim land, have openly expressed anti-Semitic views. This is especially true of Al Qaeda, Hamas, and Hezbollah.

Lashkar-e-Toiba's propaganda arm has declared the Jews to be "Enemies of Islam" and Israel to be the "Enemy of Pakistan"[1].

See also


Notes

  1. ^ "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopedia Judaica
  2. ^ a b c "Yahud". Encyclopaedia of Islam
  3. ^ Lewis (1999), p. 128
  4. ^ English translation of the Qur'an by Arberry.
  5. ^ Gerber (1986), pp. 78–79
  6. ^ Here the Qur'an uses an Arabic expression alladhina hadu ("those who are Jewish"), which appears in the Qur'an ten times. "Yahud". Encyclopedia of Islam
  7. ^ Lewis (1999), p. 120
  8. ^ Gerber (1986), p. 91
  9. ^ Gerber (1986), p. 78
  10. ^ "Mutation of Israelites", Internet Sacred Text Archive. (retrieved May 3, 2006)
  11. ^ "Hizbullah Al-Manar TV’s Children's Claymation Special: Jews Turn Into Apes & Pigs, are Annihilated & Cast into the Sea",, Middle East Media Research Institute, December 16, 2005. (retrieved May 3, 2006)
  12. ^ Glazov, Jamie, "Symposium: The Koran and Anti-Semitism", FrontPageMag.com, June 25, 2004. (retrieved May 3, 2006)
  13. ^ Solnick, Aluma, "Based on Koranic Verses, Interpretations, and Traditions, Muslim Clerics State: The Jews Are the Descendants of Apes, Pigs, And Other Animals", Middle East Media Research Institute, November 1, 2002. (retrieved May 3, 2006)
  14. ^ Arlandson, James, "Allah's special little apes and pigs", The American Thinker, January 26, 2005. (retrieved May 3, 2006)
  15. ^ Maududi, Sayyid Abul Ala (1967). The Meaning of the Quran.
  16. ^ Qutb, Sayyid (1999). In the Shade of the Qur'an (book).
  17. ^ Maududi, Sayyid Abul Ala (1967). The Meaning of the Quran.
  18. ^ Glazov, Jamie, "Symposium: The Koran and Anti-Semitism", FrontPageMag.com, June 25, 2004. (retrieved May 3, 2006)
  19. ^ The Hamas monthly publication Falastin Al-Muslima (London), September 1996, series of articles by Ibrahim Al-'Ali, pp. 54-55.
  20. ^ Barzilay, I., Yoseph Shlomo Delmedigo (Yashar of Candia): His Life, Works and Times, p. XXIV (1997)
  21. ^ Saudi Arabia's Curriculum of Intolerance (pdf), Freedom House, May 2006, pp.24-25.
  22. ^ Laqueur (2006), pp. 191–192
  23. ^ Akram Diya al Umari (1991) Madinan Society At the Time of the Prophet, (Virginia: International Islamic Publishing House and the International Institute of Islamic Thought) "The Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa"
  24. ^ Rodinson (1971), pg. 172-3
  25. ^ Ibn Kathir (2000), vol. III, pg. 2-3
  26. ^ Watt (1956), pg. 209
  27. ^ Stillman (1979), p. 14
  28. ^ Stillman 140–141.
  29. ^ Gerber (1986), p. 78
  30. ^ Laqueur (2006), p. 192
  31. ^ Lewis (1984) p.32-33
  32. ^ Lewis (1984) p.33
  33. ^ Kraemer, Joel L., Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait in The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides pp. 16-17 (2005)
  34. ^ Maimonides, ‘’Epistle to the Jews of Yemen”, translated in Stillman (1979), pp. 241–242
  35. ^ Mark R. Cohen (1995) p. xvii-xviii
  36. ^ Norman Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands,, 1979, pp. 59, 284.
  37. ^ Bat Ye'or, The Dhimmi,, 1985, page 61
  38. ^ Maurice Roumani, The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue, 1977, pp. 26-27.
  39. ^ Gilbert, Martin. Dearest Auntie Fori. The Story of the Jewish People. HarperCollins, 2002, pp. 179-182.
  40. ^ a b Muslim Anti-Semitism by Bernard Lewis (Middle East Quarterly) June 1998
  41. ^ Lewis (1984) p.33-34
  42. ^ Arabs Reject UN Partition Plan
  43. ^ History in a Nutshell-Flash
  44. ^ a b c "A question of Leadership". BBC News. August 21, 2005. Retrieved 2006-05-16. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

References

  • Arberry, Arthur J. (1955). The Koran Interpreted. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.
  • Bodansky, Yossef (1999). Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument. Freeman Center For Strategic Studies
  • Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4
  • Cohen, Mark (1995). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01082-X
  • Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism, ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7
  • Ibn Kathir (2000). Al-Sira al-Nabwiyah, Volume III. Lebanon: The Center for Muslim Contribution to Civilization. Translated by Professor Trevor Le Gassick.
  • Laqueur, Walter. The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day. Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530429-2
  • Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8
  • Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7
  • Poliakov, Leon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8
  • Rodinson, Maxime (1971). Mohammed. Great Britain: Allen Lane the Penguin Press. Translated by Anne Carter.
  • Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
  • Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
  • Viré, F. (2006) "Kird". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
  • Watt, Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford:University Press.
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