Space Race
The Space Race refers to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union roughly from 1957 to 1975, involving their efforts to explore space with satellites and to eventually land a human being on the Moon and return him to Earth. Generically, a space race (uncapitalized) may refer to any competition between two or more states, international organizations, or nongovernmental organizations to advance in space exploration and technology.
Though its roots lie in early rocket technology and in the international tensions following World War II, the Space Race effectively began with the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957. The term was coined as an analogy to the arms race. The Space Race became an important part of the cultural and technological rivalry between the USSR and the U.S. during the Cold War. Space technology was a particularly important arena in this conflict, both because of its military applications and due to the psychological benefit of raising morale.
Historical background
Early military influences
Rockets have been of interest to scientists and amateurs for at least 2,300 years, and were used by the Chinese as weapons as early as 1,000 years ago. Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky theorized in the 1880s of multi-stage, liquid fuel rockets which might reach space, but it was not until 1926 that American Robert Goddard designed a practical liquid-fuel rocket.
Goddard performed his work on rocketry in obscurity, as the scientific community, the public, and even The New York Times scoffed at him. It took war to catapult rocketry into notoriety. This proved a harbinger for the future, as any "space race" would be inextricably linked to military ambitions of the countries involved, despite its mostly scientific character and peaceful rhetoric.
German contributions
In the mid-1920s, German scientists had begun experimenting with rockets which used liquid propellants capable of reaching relatively high altitudes and distances. In 1932, the Reichswehr, predecessor of the Wehrmacht, took an interest in rocketry, for long-range artillery fire. Wernher von Braun, an aspiring rocket scientist, joined the effort and developed such weapons for use in World War II by Nazi Germany.
The German A-4 Rocket, launched in 1942 was the first such projectile to reach space. In 1943, Germany began production of its successor, the V-2 rocket, with a range of 300 km (185 miles) and carrying a 1000 kg (2204 lb) warhead. Thousands were fired at Allied nations, causing massive damage and loss of life.
At the end of the war, competing Russian, British, and U.S. military and scientific crews raced to capture technology and trained personnel from the German rocket program at Peenemünde. Russia and Britain had some success, but the United States benefited most, taking a large number of German rocket scientists—many of whom were members of the Nazi Party, including von Braun—from Germany to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip. There, the same rockets which were intended to be used against Britain were adapted by scientists for other uses.
After the war, rockets were used to study high-altitude conditions, by radio telemetry of temperature and pressure of the atmosphere, detection of cosmic rays, and further research. This continued under von Braun and the others, who were destined to become part of the U.S. scientific complex.
Cold War roots of the Space Race
After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union were locked in a bitter Cold War of espionage and propaganda. Space exploration and satellite technology could feed into the cold war on both fronts. Satellites could spy on other countries, while space-faring accomplishments could be used as propaganda to tout a country's scientific prowess and military potential. The same rockets that might send a human into orbit or hit a specific spot on the Moon could send an atom bomb to a specific enemy city. Much of the technological development required for space travel applied equally well to wartime rockets, such as ICBMs. Along with other aspects of the arms race, progress in space was seen as an indicator of technological and economic prowess, demonstrating the superiority of the ideology of that country. Space research was a dual-use technology: It could be used for peaceful means, but could also contribute to military goals.
The two superpowers worked to gain an edge in space research, neither knowing who might make a breakthrough first. The groundwork for a race to space was there, and awaited only the starter's gun.
Artificial satellites start the "race"
Sputnik ... and America's reaction
On October 4 1957,the USSR successfully launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite in orbit, and the Space Race was underway. Sputnik caused great fear and stirred political debate in the United States because of its military and economic implications. Before Sputnik, the average American citizen assumed that the U.S. was superior in all fields of technology. Von Braun's counterpart in the Soviet Union was Sergei Korolev, the chief engineer who designed the R-7 rocket which sent Sputnik 1 into orbit, and would later engineer the N-1, designed to launch cosmonauts to the Moon. In response to Sputnik, the U.S. would launch a huge effort to regain technological supremacy, including revamping the school curricula in hopes of producing more Von Brauns and Korolevs.
The motivation for these American efforts was expressed by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson to President John F. Kennedy as follows:
- In the eyes of the world, first in space means first, period; second in space is second in everything.1
The American public, initially discouraged and frightened by Sputnik, soon became captivated by the American projects which followed. Schoolchildren followed the succession of launches, and building replicas of rockets became a popular hobby. President Kennedy gave speeches encouraging people to support the space program and trying to overcome the skepticism of many who felt the millions of dollars might be better spent on building stocks of proven, existing armaments, or on fighting poverty.
Nearly four months after the first Russian satellite was sent into orbit, the first U.S. satellite, Explorer I, was launched. In the interim, there had been a number of embarrassing launch failures at Cape Canaveral. But on January 31 1958, Explorer I discovered the Van Allen radiation belt. While the Soviets were first off the mark, Explorer I was the first satellite to perform a meaningful function.
Satellite communications
The first communications satellite was Project SCORE, launched on December 18 1958, which relayed a Christmas message from President Eisenhower to the world. Other notable examples of satellite communication during (or spawned by) the Space Race include:
- 1972: Anik 1: first Domestic Communications Satellite(Canada)
- 1974: WESTAR: first U.S. Domestic Communications Satellite
- 1976: MARISAT: first mobile communications satellite
Other noteworthy satellites
The first geosynchronous satellite was Syncom-2, launched on July 26 1963, by the U.S. The success of this class of satellite meant that a simple satellite dish no longer needed to track the orbit of the satellite, as it was geostationary. Henceforth ordinary citizens could use the communications transmissions for television broadcasts, after a one-time setup.
More Soviet successes: Living creatures in space
Animals in space
Technically, the first animals in space were fruit flies launched by the U.S. on captured German V-2 rockets in 1946. The first animal sent into orbit during the Space Race was a dog, Laika, in Sputnik 2 in 1957 by the USSR. While in any event the technology did not exist at the time to recover Laika after her flight, she is thought to have died of oxygen delivery failure soon after reaching space. In 1960 the Russian dogs Belka and Strelka orbited the earth and successfully returned. The American space program imported chimpanzees from Africa, and sent at least two into space before their first human orbiter was launched. These animals and their dozens of descendants were then used for biomedical research until public outcry led to their "release" to semi-wild conditions in the late 1990s. The first animals to fly around the Moon were Soviet turtles on Zond 5.
Humans in space
Yuri Gagarin became the first successful cosmonaut when he entered orbit in Russia's Vostok 1 on April 12 1961, a day still celebrated as a holiday in Russia and many other countries. Alan Shepherd first entered space for the U.S. shortly thereafter, and John Glenn later became the first American to successfully orbit Earth, on April 12 1962.
The first dual manned flight was also by the USSR, August 11-15, 1962. Soviet Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space on June 16 1963 in Vostok 6. Korolev had initially scheduled further Vostok missions of longer duration, but following the announcement of the Apollo Program, Khruschev demanded more 'firsts'. The first flight with more than one crew member was the USSR's Voskhod 1, a modified version of the Vostok craft, which took off October 12 1964. This was also the first flight in which the crew did not wear spacesuits.
The first spacewalk was performed by Aleksei Leonov from Voskhod 2, which was launched by the USSR on March 18 1965. The mission nearly ended in disaster. Leonov was at first nearly unable to return to the capsule and, due to a poor retrorocket fire, the ship landed 1000 miles off target. By this time Khruschev had been replaced and the new leadership would not commit to an all-out effort.
Lunar missions
Though the achievements made by the US and the USSR brought great pride to their respective nations, the Space Race would continue at least until the first human walked on the moon. Before this could be done, unmanned spacecraft had to first explore the moon by photography and demonstrate their ability to land safely on it.
Unmanned missions
The Soviet Luna program reached several milestones first in this next segment of the competition. Luna 1, launched on January 4 1959, was the first spacecraft to fly by the moon, and was also the first artificial satellite of the sun. Its successor, Luna 2, was the first spacecraft on the moon, while Luna 3 took the first photos of the far side of the moon on October 7 1959. The first "soft landing" on the moon was by Luna 9, launched by the USSR on February 3 1966, and the first spacecraft to orbit the moon was Luna 10 on April 3 1966.
The robotic Surveyor program was part of the American effort to determine where it was safe for a human to land on the moon. Five of its seven missions were successful, helping to find the best target for the Apollo astronauts. The first manned orbit of the moon was completed by Apollo 8 on December 27 1968, and the ground was laid for placing a man on the moon.
First human on the moon
American strategy
While the Soviets beat the Americans to most of the Space Race's early "firsts", they failed to beat the U.S. Apollo program to land a man on the moon. The U.S. moon exploration program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration. In a series of mid-1950s articles in Colliers magazine, Von Braun had popularised the idea of a manned expedition to the moon and establishing a lunar base. After the launch of Sputnik, Von Braun promoted a plan for the US Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965. This idea was discarded because the President thought the operation too expensive and with little potential for scientific or military reward.
After the early Soviet successes, especially Gagarin's flight, President Kennedy was keen to find an American project that might capture the public imagination. He asked Lyndon Johnson to present recommendations for a scientific bonanza that would prove US world leadership. Amongst the proposals were non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to end famine in the Third World. Mindful that the Apollo Program would economically benefit most the key states in the next election, particularly his home state of Texas, Johnson championed a space-based option. Furthermore, Kennedy had won the 1960 election while claiming the previous administration had allowed a "missile gap" to open up between the US and USSR, while intelligence reports had shown the reverse to be the case. The Apollo project allowed continued development of dual-use technology. Johnson also advised that for anything less than a lunar landing there was a good chance the USSR would beat the US. Kennedy seized upon Apollo as the ideal focus for American efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut and diverting money from other NASA projects. This dismayed NASA's leader, James E. Webb, who urged support for other scientific work.
In conversation with Webb, Kennedy said:
- Everything we do ought to really be tied in to getting on to the moon ahead of the Russians [...] otherwise we shouldn't be spending that kind of money, because I'm not interested in space [...] The only justification for [the cost] is because we hope to beat [the USSR] to demonstrate that instead of being behind by a couple of years, by God, we passed them.2.
Whatever was said in private, a different message was needed to gain public support. Later in 1963, Kennedy asked Vice President Johnson to investigate the possible technological and scientific benefits of a moon mission. For the program to succeed, it would have to defeat criticism from politicians on the left, who wanted more money spent on social programs , and on the right, who favored a more military project. By emphasising the scientific payoff, and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: By 1965, 58 percent of Americans were in favor of Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. When Johnson became President, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy had originally hoped.
Russian strategy
Meanwhile, the USSR was more ambivalent about going to the moon. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was unwilling to be "defeated" by any other power, but was equally unwilling to be drawn into such an expensive project. In October 1963, he said that the USSR was "not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the moon", qualifying this statement with his insistence that they had not dropped out of the race. It would be another year before the USSR would fully commit to a moon landing attempt.
At the same time, various joint programs had been suggested by Kennedy, including a possible moon landing by Soviet and American astronauts, and the development of better weather-monitoring satellites. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal superior Russian space technology, rejected the idea: If the USSR went to the moon, it would go alone. Korolev, the RSA's chief designer, had been promoting his Soyuz craft and N1 launcher rocket that would be able to carry out a manned moon landing. Khrushchev directed Korolev's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team was building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a manned cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a moon landing effort and brought all manned projects under his direction. With Korolev's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, the coordination of the Soviet moon landing program quickly unravelled. A landing craft was built and Cosmonauts were selected for the mission that would have placed Alexei Leonov on the moon's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a manned landing were first delayed and then cancelled.
Apollo 11 gets there first
While unmanned Soviet probes did reach the moon before any U.S. craft, American Neil Armstrong was the first person to walk on the lunar surface, after landing in July of 1969. Commander of the Apollo 11 mission, Armstrong was accompanied by command module pilot Michael Collins and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin in an event watched by over 500 million people around the world. The lunar landing is widely recognised as one of the defining moments of the 20th century, and Armstrong's words on his first touching the moon's surface are similarly memorable:
That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.
Other aspects of the moon landing
Unlike other international rivalries, the Space Race has not been directly influenced by the desire for territorial expansion. After its successful landings on the Moon, the U.S. explicitly disclaimed the right to ownership of any part of the Moon.
Some conspiracy theorists still insist that the lunar landing was a hoax. These Apollo moon landing hoax accusations flourish in part because, while many enthusiasts predicted that moon landings would become commonplace, except for the several ensuing Apollo landings in the next decade this has not become the case.
Other successes
Missions to other planets
The first spacecraft to fly by Venus was the Mariner 2, sent by the U.S. on December 14 1962. Mariner 4, launched in 1965 by the U.S., was the first to fly by Mars, and the U.S also sent Pioneer 10 on a successful fly by of Jupiter in 1973.
In 1974 the U.S. launched Mariner 10, which became the first, and so far the only, spacecraft to fly by Mercury. The U.S. also recorded the first flyby of Saturn in 1979 with Pioneer 11, and the first and only flybys of Uranus and Neptune with Voyager 2.
The first spacecraft to land on Venus was the USSR's Venera 7, launched in 1971. It was only one in the long Venera series; several other previous Venera spacecraft performed flyby and attempted landing missions. Seven other Venera landers followed. The first spacecraft on Mars was Mars 3, also launched in 1971 by the USSR.
Launches and docking
The first space rendezvous was between Gemini 6 and Gemini 7, both U.S. craft, on December 15 1965. Their successor, Gemini 8, performed the first space docking on March 16 1968. The first automatic space docking was performed by the USSR's Cosmos-186 and Cosmos-188 on October 30 1967.
The first launch from the sea was Scout B, on April 26 1967, by the U.S. The first space station was Salyut 1, on June 7 1971, by the USSR.
The "end" of the Space Race
While the Sputnik launch can clearly be called the start of the Space Race, its end is more debatable. Although it was most hotly contested during the 1960s, the Space Race continued apace through the Apollo moon landing of 1969. Although they followed Apollo 11 with some six more manned lunar landings, American space science turned to new arenas. Skylab would gather data, and the Space Shuttle would work on returning spaceships intact from space journeys. Americans would claim that by first landing a man on the moon they had won this unofficial "race". Soviet scientists meanwhile pushed ahead with their own projects, and would likely not have conceded anything like defeat. In any event, as the Cold War cooled, and as other nations began to develop their own space programs, the notion of a continuing "race" between the two superpowers became less real.
Both nations had developed manned military space programs. The USAF had proposed using its Titan missile to launch the Dyna Soar hypersonic glider that would be used to intercept enemy satellites. This was replaced by the Manned Orbiting Laboratory that used hardware based on the Gemini program to carry out surveillance missions, but this was also cancelled. The USSR commissioned the Almaz program for a similar manned military space station which merged with the Salyut program.
The Space Race slowed after the Apollo landing, which many observers describe as its apex or even its end. Others, including space historian Carole Scott and Romanian Dr. Florin Pop's Cold War Project, feel its end was most clearly punctuated by the joint Apollo-Soyuz mission of 1975. The Soviet craft Soyuz-19 met and docked in space with America's Apollo 18, allowing astronauts from the "rival" nations to pass into each other's ship and participate in combined experimentation. Although each country's endeavors in space persisted, they went largely in different "directions", and the notion of a continuing two-nation "race" was outdated after Apollo-Soyuz.
Organisation, funding and the economic impact
The huge expenditures and bureaucracy needed to organize successful space exploration led to the creation of national space agencies. The United States and the Soviet Union developed programs focused solely on the scientific and industrial requirement for these efforts.
On July 29 1958, President Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 establishing the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). When it began operations on October 1 1958, NASA consisted mainly of the four laboratories and some 8,000 employees of the government's 46-year-old research agency for aeronautics, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). While its predecessor, NACA, operated on a 5 million dollar budget, NASA funding was rapidly accelerated to 5 billion dollars per year, including huge sums for subcontractors from the private sector. The Apollo 11 moon landing, which would be perhaps the high point of NASA's success, was estimated to have cost some 20-25 billion dollars.
Making comparisons of U.S. and Soviet space spending, especially during the Khruschev years, is very difficult. However in 1989, then-Soviet Armed Services Chief of Staff General M. Moiseyev reported that the Soviet Union allocated 6.9 billion rubles (about $4 billion) to its space program that year3. Other Soviet officials estimated that their total manned space expenses totaled about that amount over the entire duration of the programs, with some lower unofficial estimates of about four and half billion rubles. In addition to the murkiness of the figures, such comparisons must also take into account the likely effect of Soviet propaganda on the figures, with the ultimate goal of making Soviet Union look strong and at the same time confuse the Western analysis. The Soviet effort was also plagued by inefficent organisation. In USSR there was nothing like NASA in the USA (the Russian Aviation and Space Agency was created only in the 1990s). Too many political issues in science, imaginary values instead of real ones, and too many personal views handicapped the Soviet progress. Every Soviet chief designer had to stand for his ideas, looking for the patronage of a communist official.
Soviets were trying to operate a space program in the face of a largely impoverished population not enjoying the fruits of the expanding U.S. economy. Eventually the Soviets inefficient economy, organisation and lack of funds, led them to lose their early advantage over United States. The high economic cost of the space race, along with the extremly expensive arms race eventualy deepend the economic crisis of the communist economic system and was one of the factors that lead to the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Deaths
When America's Apollo 15 left the moon, the astronauts left behind a memorial to astronauts from both nations who perished during the efforts to reach the moon. In the United States, the first astronauts to die during direct participation in space travel or preparation were from Apollo 1, Command Pilot Virgil Grissom, Senior Pilot Edward White, and Pilot Roger Chaffee. These three were killed in a fire during a ground test on January 27, 1967.
Flights of the Soviet Union's Soyuz 1 and Soyuz 11 also resulted in cosmonaut deaths. Soyuz 1 was launched into orbit on April 23 1967, carrying a single cosmonaut, Colonel Vladimir Mikhailovich Komarov, who was killed when the spacecraft crashed after return to Earth. In 1971, Soyuz 11's cosmonauts Georgi Dobrovolski, Viktor Patsayev, and Vladislav Volkov were asphyxiated during re-entry. American telemetry has recorded other deaths (based on loss of their telemetered vital signs in spaceflight) which were unannounced by the Soviet Union.
Other astronauts died in related missions, including four Americans who died in crashes of T-38 aircraft. Russian Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space, met a similar death when he crashed in a MiG fighter in 1968.
Timeline (1957-1975)
1Project Vanguard was transferred from the NRL to NASA immediately before launch.
2 The Soviet Union had attempted an earlier rendezvous on August 12, 1962; However, Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 were only within five kilometers of one another, and were in different orbital planes. Pravda, however, did not mention this information and indicated that rendezvous had been accomplished.
Legacy of the Space Race
Advances in technology and education
Technology, especially in aerospace engineering and electronic communication, advanced greatly during this period. The effects of the Space Race however went far beyond rocketry, physics, and astronomy. "Space age technology" extended to fields as diverse as home economics and forest defoliation study, and the push to win the race changed the very ways in which students learned science.
American concerns that they had fallen so quickly behind Russia in the race to space led quickly to a push by legislators and educators for greater emphasis on mathematics and the physical sciences in U.S. schools. America's National Defense Educational Act of 1982 increased funding for these goals from childhood education through the post-graduate level.
The scientists spawned by these efforts helped develop technologies for space exploration which have been adapted to uses ranging from the kitchen to athletic fields. Dried and ready-to-eat foods, stay-dry clothing, and even no-fog ski goggles have their roots in space science. Today over a thousand artificial satellites orbit earth, relaying communications data around the planet and facilitating remote sensing of data on weather, vegetation, and human movements to nations who employ them. In addition, much of the micro-technology which fuels everyday activities from time-keeping to enjoying music derives from research which initially was driven by the Space Race.
The USSR was the undisputed leader in rocketry, even up to the end of the Cold War. The U.S. was superior in electronics, remote sensing, vehicle guidance, and robotic control.
More "space races" to come?
Although its pace was slowed, space exploration continues to advance long after the demise of the first Space Race. The first reusable spacecraft (space shuttle) was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, April 12 1981. On November 15 1988, the USSR launched Buran, the first and only automatic reusable spacecraft. Probes, satellites of many types, and huge space telescopes continue to be launched by these and other nations.
Any subsequent "space race" is likely to be of a different nature. Competition in what might be called "space tourism", to run the first commercial trips into orbit, culminated in a bilateral result. On April 28 2001 American Dennis Tito became the first fee-paying space tourist when he visited the International Space Station on board Russia's Soyuz TM-32. The Ansari X Prize, a competition for private suborbital spaceships, has also been called the new "space race". In late 2004, British aviator-financier Richard Branson announced the launch of Virgin Galactic, a company which will use SpaceShipOne technology, with hopes of launching commercial flights by 2008.
The possibility of another international "space race" appeared in 2003, with the successful manned space flight of Shenzhou 5 by the People's Republic of China. Their "opponent" could be the United States, which is considering creating a permanent base on the Moon, a manned mission to Mars, or both.
Notes
- 1 letter from Johnson written to Kennedy on April 28,1961
- 2 from a tape recording in the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library
- 3 James Oberg, in Final Frontier, as reprinted in The New Book of Popular Science Annual, 1992
Related topics
- Space vehicle guidance using the gyroscopic compass
- Celestial mechanics, calculating the trajectories for space travel
- List of spacecraft manufacturers
References
- An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963, Robert Dallek (2003). ISBN 0-316172-38-3
- Arrows to the Moon: Avro's Engineers and the Space Race , Chris Gainor (2001). ISBN 1-896522-83-1
- Fallen Astronauts: Heroes Who Died Reaching for the Moon, Colin Burgess, Kate Doolan, Bert Vis (2003). ISBN 0803262124
- Light This Candle : The Life & Times of Alan Shepard--America's First Spaceman, Neal Thompson (2004). ISBN 0609610015
- The New Columbia Encyclopedia, Col.Univ.Press (1975)
- The Right Stuff, Tom Wolfe (pbk ed. 2001). ISBN 0553381350 ISBN 0613916670
- Russia in Space: The Failed Frontier?, Brian Harvey (2001). ISBN 1852332034
- The Soviet Space Race With Apollo, Asif A. Siddiqi (2003). ISBN 0813026288
- Soyuz: A Universal Spacecraft, Rex Hall, David J. Shayler (2003). ISBN 1852336579
- Space for Women: A History of Women With the Right Stuff, Pamela Freni (2002). ISBN 1931643121
- Space Exploration, Carole Scott, Eyewitness Books, 1997
- Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge, Asif A. Siddiqi (2003). ISBN 081302627X
- Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles, Roger E. Bilstein (2003). ISBN 0813026911
- Yeager: An Autobiography, Chuck Yeager (1986). ISBN 0553256742
External links
- CORE/NSF Arrows to the Moon synopsis
- Artwork representing the cold war in space
- Space Race Exhibition at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum
- TheSpaceRace.com – Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs
- Timeline of the Space Race to the Moon 1960 - 1969
- 570Kb PDF file containing a scan of a letter from Wernher Von Braun to Vice President Johnson, dated 29 April 1961, responding to a memorandum from President Kennedy to Johnson. Von Braun provides a personal assessment(rather than an official view in his then-capacity as director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center) of United States and Soviet capability. The analysis includes the opinion that the U.S. has "an excellent chance" of beating the Russians to a manned lunar landing, adding "with an all-out crash programme I think we could accomplish this objective in 1967/68."
- Communications Satellites article by NASA
- Why Did the USSR Lose the Moon Race? Pravda Online, 2002-12-03
- Shadows of the Soviet Space Age, Paul Lucas
- Chronology:Moon Race at russianspaceweb.com
- Space study hobbyists' organization
- International Cold War Project group's analysis of Space Race history