Roman Egypt

The Roman Empire c. 120, with Aegyptus province highlighted

See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire.

Ægyptus was, in ancient geography, a province of the Roman Empire, encompassing most of modern-day Egypt except for the Sinai Peninsula. Both the provinces of Cyrenaica to the west and Arabia to the east bordered Ægyptus. The area originally came under Roman rule in 30 BC, following the defeat of Cleopatra and Mark Antony by Octavian (the future Emperor Augustus). It would come to serve as a major producer of grain for the empire.

Roman rule in Egypt

The first prefect of Ægyptus, Gaius Cornelius Gallus, brought Upper Egypt under Roman control by force of arms, established a protectorate over the southern frontier district, which had been abandoned by the later Ptolemies. The second prefect, Aelius Gallus, made an unsuccessful expedition to conquer Arabia Petraea and even Arabia Felix; however, the Red Sea coast of Egypt was not brought under Roman control until the reign of Claudius. The third prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation, stimulating a revival of agriculture.

Hadrian coin celebrating the Aegyptus province

From the reign of Nero onwards, Ægyptus enjoyed an era of prosperity which lasted a century. Much trouble was caused by religious conflicts between the Greeks and the Jews, particularly in Alexandria, which after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 become the world centre of Jewish religion and culture. Under Trajan a Jewish revolt occurred, resulting in the suppression of the Jews of Alexandria and the loss of all their privileges, although they soon returned. Hadrian, who twice visited Ægyptus, founded Antinoöpolis in memory of his drowned lover Antinous. From his reign onwards buildings in the Greco-Roman style were erected throughout the country.

Under Marcus Aurelius, however, oppressive taxation led to a revolt (139) of the native Egyptians, which was suppressed only after several years of fighting. This Bucolic War caused great damage to the economy and marked the beginning of Ægyptus's economic decline. Avidius Cassius, who led the Roman forces in the war, declared himself Emperor, and was acknowledged by the armies of Syria and Ægyptus. On the approach of Marcus Aurelius, however, he was deposed and killed, and the clemency of the emperor restored peace. A similar revolt broke out in 193, when Pescennius Niger was proclaimed emperor on the death of Pertinax. The Emperor Septimius Severus gave a constitution to Alexandria and the provincial capitals in 202.

The most revolutionary event in the history of Ægyptus was the introduction of Christianity in the 1st century (around 33 AD). It was at first vigorously persecuted by the Roman authorities, who feared religious discord more than anything else in a country where religion had always been paramount. But it soon gained adherents among the Jews of Alexandria. From them it rapidly passed to the Greeks, and then to the native Egyptians, who found its promise of personal salvation and its teachings of social equality appealing. The ancient religion of Egypt put up surprisingly little resistance to the spread of Christianity. Possibly its long history of collaboration with the Greek and Roman rulers of Egypt had robbed it of its authority. Alternatively, the life-affirming native religion may have begun to lose its appeal among the lower classes as a burden of taxation and liturgic services instituted by the Roman emperors reduced the quality of life. In a religious system which views earthly life as eternal, when earthly life becomes strained and miserable, the desire for such an everlasting life loses its appeal. Thus, the focus on poverty and meekness found a vacuum among the Egyptian population. In addition, many Christian tenets such as the concept of the trinity, a resurrection of deity and union with god after death had close similarities with the native religion of ancient Egypt.

Caracalla (211-217) granted Roman citizenship to all Egyptians, in common with the other provincials, but this was mainly to extort more taxes, which grew increasingly onerous as the needs of the Emperors for more revenue grew more desperate. There was a series of revolts, both military and civilian, through the 3rd century. Under Decius, in 250, the Christians again suffered from persecution, but their religion continued to spread. The prefect of Ægyptus in 260, Mussius Aemilianus, first supported the Macriani, Gallienus usurpers, and later (261) become usurper himself, but was defeated by Gallienus. In 272 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, briefly conquered Ægyptus, but lost it when Aurelian crushed her rebellion against Rome.

Two generals based in Egypt, Probus and Domitius Domitianus, led successful revolts and made themselves Emperor. Diocletian captured Alexandria from Domitius in 298 and reorganised the whole province. His edict of 303 against the Christians began a new era of persecution. But this was the last serious attempt to stem the steady growth of Christianity in Egypt.

Proconsuls of the province of Egypt

Name	Date
Gaius Cornelius Gallus	30 BC - 26 BC
Aelius Cornelius Gallus	26 BC - 24 BC
Gaius Petronius	24 BC - 21 BC
Publius Rubrius Barbarus	? - 12 BC
Gaius Turranius	7 BC - 4 BC
Publius Octavius	2 - 3
Quintus Ostorius Scapula	3 - 10
Gaius Iulius Aquila	10 - 11
Pedo	11 - 12
Quintus Magnus Maximus	12 - 14
Lucius Strabo	14 - 15
Aemilius Rectus	15 - 15
Gaius Valerius	16 - 31
Gaius Vitrasius Pollio	31 - 32
Iulius Iber (Severus)	32
Aulus Avilius Flaccus	32 - 38
Lucius Aemilius Rectus	41 - 42
Marcus Aevius	42 - 45
Gaius Iulius Postumus	45 - 48
Gnaeus Vergilius Capito	48 - 52
Lucius Geta	54
Tiberius Claudius Balbillus Modestus	55 - 59
Lucius Iulius Vestinus	59 - 62
Gaius Caecina Tuscus	63 - 65
Tiberius Iulius Alexander	66 - 69
Lucius Peducius Colo	70
Tiberius Iulius Lupus	71 - 73
Valerius Paulinus	73 - 74
Gaius Aeterius Fronto	78 - 79
Gaius Tettius Priscus	80 - 82
Lucius Laberius Maximus	83
Lucius Iulius Ursus	83 - 84
Gaius Septimius Vegetus	85 - 88
Marcus Mettius Rufus	89 - 92
Titus Petronius Secundus	92 - 93
Marcus Iunius Rufus	94 - 98
Gaius Pompeius Planta	98 - 100
Gaius Minucius Italus	100 - 103
Gaius Vibius Maximus	103 - 107
Servius Sulpicius Similus	107 - 112
Marcus Rutilius Lupus	113 - 117
Quintus Rammius Martialis	117 - 119
Titus Gaterius Nepos	120 -124
Petronius Quadratus	126
Titus Flavius Titianus	126 - 133
Marcus Petronius Mamertinus	133 - 137
Gaius Avidius Heliodorus	137 - 142
Gaius Valerius Eudemon	142 - 143
Lucius Valerius Proculus	144 - 147
Marcus Petronius Honoratus	147 - 148
Lucius Munacius Felix	149 - 154
Marcus Sempronius Liberalis	154 - 159
Titus Furius Victorinus	159 - 161
Lucius Volusius Maecianus	161
Marcus Annaeus Siriacus	161 - 164
Titus Flavius Titianus	164 - 167
Quintus Baienus Blasianus	167 - 168
Marcus Bassius Rufus	168 - 169
Gaius Calvisius Statianus	170 - 174
Claudius Iulianus	174
Gaius Calvisius Statianus	174 - 175
Gaius Caecilius Salvianus	175 - 176
Titus Pactumius Magnus	176 - 177
Titus Taius Sanctus	178 - 180
Titus Flavius Piso	181
Decimus Veturius Macrinus	181 - 183
Titus Longaeus Rufus	185
Pomponius Faustinianus	185 - 187
Marcus Aurelius Verrianus	188
Tinius Demetrius	189 - 190
Claudius Lucilianus	190
Larcius Memor	192
Lucius Mantennius Sabinus	192 - 194
Marcus Ulpius Primianus	195 - 196
Quintus Aemilius Saturninus	197 - 200
Alfenus Appolinarius	200
Quintus Maetius Laetus	200 - 203
Claudius Iulianus	203 - 206
Tiberius Claudius Aquila	206 - 211
Lucius Baebius Aurelius Iuncinus	212 - 215
Marcus Aurelius Heraclitus	215
Aurelius Antinous	215 - 216
Lucius Valerius Datus	216 - 217
Iulius Basilianus	218
Callistianus	218 - 219
Geminius Chrestus	219 - 221
Lucius Domitius Honoratus	222
Marcus Aedinius Iulianus	222 - 223
Marcus Aurelius Epagatus	224
Claudius Masculinus	229 - 231
Marcus Aurelius Zeno Ianuarius	231
Maebius Honoratianus	232 - 236
Lucius Lucretius Annianus	236 - 240
Gnaeus Domitius Priscus	241 - 242
Aurelius Basileus	242 - 245
Gaius Valerius Firmus	245 - 248
Aurelius Appius Sabinus	249 - 250
Feltonius Restitutianus	251 - 252
Lissenius Proculus	252 - 253
Lucius Titinius Clodianus	253
Titus Magnus Crescinianus	253 - 256
Lucius Aemilianus	258 - 261

Roman government in Egypt

Egypt under Roman control managed to keep much of the government under the Ptolemies. The Romans introduced important changes in the administrative system, aimed at achieving a high level of efficiency and maximizing revenue. The duties of the prefect of Egypt combined responsibility for military security through command of the legions and cohorts, for the organization of finance and taxation, and for the administration of justice.

The reforms of the early 4th century had established the basis for another 250 years of comparative prosperity in Egypt, at a cost of perhaps greater rigidity and more oppressive state control. Egypt was subdivided for administrative purposes into a number of smaller provinces, and separate civil and military officials were established; the praeses and the dux. By the middle of the 6th century the emperor Justinian was eventually forced to recognize the failure of this policy and to combine civil and military power in the hands of the dux with a civil deputy (the praeses) as a counterweight to the power of the church authorities. All pretense of local autonomy had by then vanished. The presence of the soldiery was more noticeable, its power and influence more pervasive in the routine of town and village life.

Economy

File:PeriplusMap.jpg

Roman trade with India started from Egypt according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 1st century CE.

The economic resources that this imperial government existed to exploit had not changed since the Ptolemaic period, but the development of a much more complex and sophisticated taxation system was a hallmark of Roman rule. Taxes in both cash and kind were assessed on land, and a bewildering variety of small taxes in cash, as well as customs dues and the like, was collected by appointed officials. A massive amount of Egypt's grain was shipped downriver both to feed the population of Alexandria and for export to Rome. Despite frequent complaints of oppression and extortion from the taxpayers, it is not obvious that official tax rates were very high. In fact the Roman government had actively encouraged the privatization of land and the increase of private enterprise in manufacture, commerce, and trade, and low tax rates favoured private owners and entrepreneurs. The poorer people gained their livelihood as tenants of state-owned land or of property belonging to the emperor or to wealthy private landlords, and they were relatively much more heavily burdened by rentals, which tended to remain at a fairly high level.

Overall, the degree of monetarization and complexity in the economy, even at the village level, was intense. Goods were moved around and exchanged through the medium of coin on a large scale and, in the towns and the larger villages, a high level of industrial and commercial activity developed in close conjunction with the exploitation of the predominant agricultural base. The volume of trade, both internal and external, reached its peak in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. But by the end of the 3rd century AD, major problems were evident. A series of debasements of the imperial currency had undermined confidence in the coinage, and even the government itself was contributing to this by demanding more and more irregular tax payments in kind, which it channeled directly to the main consumers, the army personnel. Local administration by the councils was careless, recalcitrant, and inefficient; the evident need for firm and purposeful reform had to be squarely faced in the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine.

Military

This wealthiest of provinces could be held militarily by a very small force; and the threat implicit in an embargo on the export of grain supplies, vital to the provisioning of the city of Rome and its populace, was obvious. Internal security was guaranteed by the presence of three Roman legions (later reduced to two), each about 6,000 strong, and several cohorts of auxiliaries. In the first decade of Roman rule the spirit of Augustan imperialism looked farther afield, attempting expansion to the east and to the south. Most of the early Roman troops stationed there were Greco-Macedonians and native Egyptians once part of the dissolved Ptolemaic army finding service for Rome. Eventually Romans were a majority.

Christian Egypt

Egyptian Christians believe that the Patriarchate of Alexandria was founded by Mark the Evangelist around 33, but little is known about how Christianity entered Egypt. The historian Helmut Koester has suggested, with some evidence, that originally the Christians in Egypt were predominantly influenced by gnosticism until the efforts of Demetrius of Alexandria gradually brought the beliefs of the majority into harmony with the rest of Christianity. While the collective embarrassment over their heretical origins would explain the lack of details for the first centuries of Christianity in Egypt, there are too many gaps in the history of Roman times to claim that our ignorance in this situation is a special case.

Nevertheless, by 200 it is clear that Alexandria was one of the great Christian centres. The Christian apologists Clement of Alexandria and Origen both lived part or all of their lives in that city, where they wrote, taught, and debated.

With the Edict of Milan in 312, Constantine I ended the persecution of Christians. Over the course of the 4th century, paganism was oppressed and lost its following, as the poet Palladius bitterly noted. It lingered underground for many decades: the final edict against paganism was issued in 390, but graffiti at Philae in Upper Egypt proves worship of Isis persisted at its temples into the 5th century. Many Egyptian Jews also became Christians, but many others refused to do so, leaving them as the only sizeable religious minority in a Christian country.

No sooner had the Egyptian Church achieved freedom and supremacy, however, than it became subject to schism and prolonged conflict which at times descended into civil war. Alexandria became the centre of the first great split in the Christian world, between the Arians, named for the Alexandrian priest Arius, and orthodoxy, represented by Athanasius, who became Archbishop of Alexandria in 326 after the First Council of Nicaea rejected Arius's views. The Arian controversy caused years of riots and rebellions throughout most of the fourth century. In the course of one of these, the great temple of Serapis, the stronghold of paganism, was destroyed. Athanasius was alternately expelled from Alexandria and reinstated as its Archbishop between five and seven times.

It was never easy to impose religious orthodoxy on Egypt, a country with an ancient tradition of religious speculation. Not only did Arianism flourish there, but other heresies, such as Gnosticism and Manichaeism, either native or imported, found many followers. Another religious development in Egypt was the monasticism of the Desert Fathers, who renounced the material world in order to live a life of poverty in devotion to the Church. Egyptian Christians took up monasticism with such enthusiasm that the Emperor Valens had to restrict the number of men who could become monks. Egypt exported monasticism to the rest of the Christian world. Another development of this period was the development of Coptic, a form of the Ancient Egyptian language written with the Greek alphabet supplemented by several signs to represent sounds present in Egyptian which were not present in Greek. Coptic is invented as a means to ensure correct pronunciation of magical words and names in "pagan" texts, the so-called Greek Magical Papyri. Coptic was soon adopted by early Christians to spread the word of the gospel to native Egyptians and it became the liturgical language of Egyptian Christianity and remains so to this day.

Byzantine Egypt

The reign of Constantine also saw the founding of Constantinople as a new capital for the Roman Empire, and in the course of the 4th century the Empire was divided in two, with Egypt finding itself in the Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople. This meant that within a few years Latin, never well established in Egypt, disappeared, and Greek reasserted itself as the language of government. During the 5th and 6th centuries the Eastern Roman Empire gradually became the Byzantine Empire, a Christian, Greek-speaking state that had little in common with the old Empire of Rome, which disappeared in the face of the barbarian invasions in the 5th century. Another consequence of the triumph of Christianity was the final oppression and demise of the pagan culture: with the disappearance of the old Egyptian priesthood, no-one could read the hieroglyphics of Pharaonic Egypt, and its temples were converted to churches or abandoned to the desert.

The Eastern Empire became increasingly "oriental" in style as its links with the old Græco-Roman world faded. The Greek system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared. Offices, with new Byzantine names, were almost hereditary in the wealthy land-owning families. Alexandria, the second city of the Empire, continued to be a centre of religious controversy and violence. Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, convinced the city's governor to expel the Jews from the city in 415 with the aid of the mob, in response to the Jews' nighttime massacre of many Christians. The murder of the philosopher Hypatia marked the final end of classical Hellenic culture in Egypt. Another schism in the Church produced a prolonged civil war and alienated Egypt from the Empire.

The new religious controversy was over the nature of Jesus Christ. The issue was whether Christ had two natures (Human and Divine) or one. This may seem an arcane distinction, but in an intensely religious age it was enough to divide an empire. The Monophysite controversy arose after the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and continued until the Council of Chalcedon in 451, which ruled in favour of the position that Christ was "In two natures". This belief was not held by the monophysites as they stated that Christ was out of two natures in one nature called the "Incarnate Logos of God". Many of the monophysites claimed that they were misunderstood, that there was really no difference between their position and the orthodox position, and that the Council of Chalcedon ruled against them because of political motivations. But Egypt and Syria remained hotbeds of Monophysite sentiment, and organised resistance to the orthodox view was not suppressed until the 570s.

The reign of Justinian (482–565) saw the Empire recapture Rome and much of Italy from the barbarians, but these successes left the Empire's eastern flank exposed.

Persian conquest

Main article: Roman-Persian Wars

The Persian conquest of Egypt, beginning in 619 or 618, was one of the last Sassanid triumphs in the Roman-Persian Wars against Byzantium. Khosrow II Parvêz had begun this war in retaliation for the assassination of Emperor Maurice (582-602) and had achieved a series of early successes, culminating in the conquests of Jerusalem (614) and Alexandria (619). A Byzantine counteroffensive launched by Emperor Heraclius in spring 622 shifted the advantage, however, and the war was brought to an end by the fall of Khosrow on 25 February 628 (Frye, pp. 167-70). The Egyptians had no love of the Emperor in Constantinople and put up little resistance. Khosrow's son and successor, Kavadh II Šêrôe (Šêrôy), who reigned until September, concluded a peace treaty returning territories conquered by the Sassanids to the Eastern Roman Empire.

The Persian conquest allowed Monophysitism to resurface in Egypt, and when imperial rule was restored by Emperor Heraclius in 629, the Monophysites were persecuted and their patriarch expelled. Egypt was thus in a state of both religious and political alienation from the Empire when a new invader appeared.

Arab conquest

Main article: Muslim conquest of Egypt

An army of 4,000 Arabs led by Amr Ibn Al-Aas was sent by the Caliph Umar, successor to Muhammad, to spread Islamic rule to the west. The Arabs crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639, and advanced rapidly into the Nile Delta. The Imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. But the Arabs sent for reinforcements, and in April 641 they captured Alexandria. Most of the Egyptian Christians welcomed their new rulers: the accession of a new regime meant for them the end of the persecutions by the Byzantine state church. The Byzantines assembled a fleet with the aim of recapturing Egypt, and won back Alexandria in 645, but the Muslims retook the city in 646, completing the Muslim conquest of Egypt. Thus ended 975 years of Græco-Roman rule over Egypt.

References

• Bowman, Alan Keir. 1996. Egypt After the Pharaohs: 332 BC–AD 642; From Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press
• Chauveau, Michel. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca: Cornell University Press
• Ellis, Simon P. 1992. Graeco-Roman Egypt. Shire Egyptology 17, ser. ed. Barbara G. Adams. Aylesbury: Shire Publications Ltd.
• Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." 2nd Draft Edition. [1]
• Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE Draft annotated English translation. [2]
• Hölbl, Günther. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. Translated by Tina Saavedra. London: Routledge Ltd.
• Lloyd, Alan Brian. 2000. "The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 395–421
• Peacock, David. 2000. "The Roman Period (30 BC–AD 311)". In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 422–445