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2009 Fort Hood shooting

Coordinates: 31°8′33″N 97°47′47″W / 31.14250°N 97.79639°W / 31.14250; -97.79639
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Fort Hood shooting
Location of the main cantonment of Fort Hood in Bell County, Texas
LocationFort Hood, Texas,
United States
DateNovember 5, 2009
ca. 1:34 p.m. (CST)
Attack type
Mass shooting, mass murder
Deaths13[1]
Injured30[1]

The Fort Hood shooting was a mass shooting that took place on November 5, 2009, at Fort Hood—the most populous US military base in the world, located just outside Killeen, Texas—in which a gunman killed 13 people and wounded 30 others.[2]

The accused perpetrator is Nidal Malik Hasan, a U.S. Army major serving as a psychiatrist. He was shot by civilian police officers,[3] and is now paralyzed from the waist down.[4] Hasan has been charged with 13 counts of premeditated murder and 32 counts of attempted murder under the Uniform Code of Military Justice; he may face additional charges at court-martial.[5][6]

Hasan is an American-born Muslim of Palestinian descent. Internal Army reports indicate officers within the Army were aware of Hasan's tendencies toward radical Islam since 2005. Additionally, investigations before and after the shooting discovered e-mail communications between Hasan and Anwar al-Awlaki. Imam Awlaki quickly declared Hasan a hero, as "fighting against the U.S. army is an Islamic duty", and was believed to have played a role in the Al Queda-organized attempted terrorist bombing of Northwest Airlines Flight 253. After communications between the two were forwarded to FBI terrorism task forces in 2008, they determined Hasan was not a threat prior to the shooting and that his questions to al-Awlaki were consistent with medical research.

In November 2009, after examining the e-mails and previous terrorism investigations, the FBI had found no information to indicate he had any co-conspirators or was part of a broader terrorist plot. To date, no government agency has officially declared the incident to be an act of terrorism. However, many government officials, polls and public figures have called the shootings an act of Islamic terrorism.

Shootings

Map of Fort Hood with red dot marking the Soldier Readiness Processing Center
An FN Five-seven similar to that which the attacker used.[7]

At approximately 1:34 p.m. local time Hasan entered his workplace, the Soldier Readiness Center, where personnel receive routine medical treatment immediately prior to and on return from deployment. According to eyewitnesses, he took a seat at an empty table, bowed his head for several seconds,[8] and then stood up and opened fire. Initially, Hasan reportedly jumped onto a desk and shouted: "Allahu Akbar!",[9][10] before firing more than 100 rounds[11] at soldiers processing through cubicles in the center, and on a crowd gathered for a college graduation ceremony scheduled for 2 p.m. in a nearby theater.[12] Witnesses reported that Hasan appeared to focus on soldiers in uniform.[13] He had two handguns: an FN Five-seven semi-automatic pistol, which he had purchased at a civilian gun store,[14] and a .357 Magnum revolver which he may not have fired.[7] A medic who treated Hasan said his combat fatigues pockets were full of pistol magazines.[15]

A team of SWAT officers approaches a building with the gunman inside

Unarmed army reserve Captain John Gaffaney attempted to stop Hasan, either by charging the shooter or throwing a chair at him, but was mortally wounded in the process.[16] Base civilian police Sergeant Kimberly Munley, who had arrived on the scene in response to the report of an emergency at the center, encountered Hasan exiting the building in pursuit of a wounded soldier. Hasan shot Munley, while witnesses claim Munley also fired at Hasan. Munley was hit three times: twice through her left leg and once in her right wrist, knocking her to the ground.[17] In the meantime, civilian police officer Sergeant Mark Todd arrived and fired at Hasan. Todd said: "He was firing at people as they were trying to run and hide. Then he turned and fired a couple of rounds at me. I didn't hear him say a word, he just turned and fired."[18] Hasan was felled by shots from Todd,[3][19] who then kicked a pistol out of Hasan's hand, and placed him in handcuffs as he fell unconscious.[20]

The incident, which lasted about 10 minutes,[21] resulted in 30 people wounded, and 13 killed—12 soldiers and 1 civilian; 11 died at the scene, and 2 died later in a hospital.[22][23]

Initially, three soldiers were believed to have been involved in the shooting; two other soldiers were detained, but subsequently released. The Fort Hood website posted a notice indicating that the shooting was not a drill. Immediately after the shooting, the base and surrounding areas were locked down by military police and SWAT teams until around 7 p.m. local time.[24] In addition, Texas Rangers, Texas DPS troopers,[25] deputies from the Bell County Sheriff's Office, and FBI agents from Austin and Waco were dispatched.[26] U.S. President Barack Obama was briefed on the incident and later made a statement about the shooting.[1]

Casualties

Shooting victim being transported to a waiting ambulance
Coffins of soldiers killed in the shooting being loaded aboard an aircraft for flight to Dover Air Force Base

There were 43 shooting casualties. Among the 13 killed were 12 soldiers, 1 of whom was pregnant, and a single Army civilian employee. 30 others were wounded and required hospitalization.[1][2] Hasan, the alleged gunman, was taken to Brooke Army Medical Center in Fort Sam Houston, Texas, where he is being held under heavy guard.[4] He was hit by at least four shots,[27] and is said to be paraplegic.[4]

Ten of the injured were treated at Scott & White Memorial Hospital, a Level 1 trauma center in Temple, Texas.[28] Seven more wounded victims were taken to Metroplex Adventist Hospital in Killeen.[28] Eight others received hospital treatment for shock.[2] Of those wounded at least 17 were service-members, and at least 7 were civilians.[29] On November 20 it was announced that eight of the wounded service-members will still deploy overseas.[30]

Fatalities

The 13 killed were:

Name Age Hometown Rank or occupation
Michael Grant Cahill[31] 62 Spokane, Washington Civilian Physician Assistant
Libardo Eduardo Caraveo[32] 52 Woodbridge, Virginia Major
Justin Michael DeCrow[33] 32 Plymouth, Indiana Staff Sergeant
John P. Gaffaney[34] 56 Serra Mesa, California Captain[35]
Frederick Greene[31] 29 Mountain City, Tennessee Specialist
Jason Dean Hunt[31] 22 Tipton, Oklahoma Specialist
Amy Sue Krueger[31] 29 Kiel, Wisconsin Staff Sergeant
Aaron Thomas Nemelka[31] 19 West Jordan, Utah Private First Class
Michael S. Pearson[36] 22 Bolingbrook, Illinois Private First Class
Russell Gilbert Seager[29] 51 Racine, Wisconsin Captain[37]
Francheska Velez ‡[38] 21 Chicago, Illinois Private First Class
Juanita L. Warman[29] 55 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Lieutenant Colonel[39]
Kham See Xiong[31] 23 Saint Paul, Minnesota Private First Class
‡ Francheska Velez was pregnant at the time of her death.[40]

Suspect

Main article: Nidal Malik Hasan
Major Nidal Malik Hasan

Major Nidal Malik Hasan, MD, a 39-year-old U.S. Army psychiatrist of Palestinian descent, is the sole suspect in the shootings. Hasan is a practicing Muslim who, according to one of his cousins, became more devout after the deaths of his parents in 1998 and 2001.[41] His cousin did not recall him ever expressing radical or anti-American views.[41] Another cousin, Nader Hasan, a lawyer in Virginia, said that Nidal Hasan's opinion turned against the wars after he heard stories from people who returned from Afghanistan and Iraq.[42]

Hasan attended the Dar Al-Hijrah mosque in Falls Church, Virginia, in 2001, at the same time as Nawaf al-Hazmi and Hani Hanjour, two of the hijackers in the September 11 attacks.[43][44] A law enforcement official said that the FBI will probably look into whether Hasan associated with the hijackers.[45] A review of Hasan's computer and his multiple e-mail accounts has revealed visits to websites espousing radical Islamist ideas, a senior law enforcement official said.[46]

Once, while presenting what was supposed to be a medical lecture to other psychiatrists, Hasan instead talked about Islam, and stated that non-believers would be sent to hell, decapitated, set on fire, and have burning oil poured down their throats. A Muslim psychiatrist in the audience raised his hand, and challenged Hasan's claims.[47] According to Associated Press, Hasan's lecture also "justified suicide bombings."[48]

According to National Public Radio (NPR), officials at Walter Reed Medical Center repeatedly expressed concern about Hasan's behavior during the entire six years he was there; Hasan's supervisors gave him poor evaluations and warned him that he was doing substandard work. In the spring of 2008 (and on later occasions) several key officials met to discuss what to do about Hasan. Attendees of these meetings reportedly included the Walter Reed chief of psychiatry, the chairman of the USUHS Psychiatry Department, two assistant chairs of the USUHS Psychiatry Department (one of whom was the director of Hasan's psychiatry fellowship), another psychiatrist, and the director of the Walter Reed psychiatric residency program. According to NPR, fellow students and faculty were strongly troubled by Hasan's behavior, which they described as "disconnected," "aloof," "paranoid," "belligerent," and "schizoid."[49]

Anwar al-Awlaki, Hasan's former imam believed to be an al-Qaeda regional commander, with whom Hasan communicated in the months prior to the shootings

Hasan has expressed admiration for the teachings of Anwar al-Awlaki, imam at the Dar al-Hijrah mosque between 2000 and 2002.[50] Al-Awkali was under surveillance, and Hasan was investigated by the FBI after intelligence agencies intercepted 18 emails between them between December 2008 and June 2009. In one of the emails Hasan wrote: "I can't wait to join you" in the afterlife. Lt. Col. Tony Shaffer, a military analyst at the Center for Advanced Defense Studies, suggested that Hasan was "either offering himself up or [had] already crossed that line in his own mind." Hasan also asked al-Awlaki when jihad is appropriate, and whether it is permissible if innocents are killed in a suicide attack.[51]

Army employees were informed of the contacts, but no threat was perceived; the emails were judged to be consistent with mental health research about Muslims in the armed services.[52] A DC-based joint terrorism task force that operates under the FBI was notified, and the information reviewed by one of its Defense Criminal Investigative Service employees, who concluded there was not sufficient information for a larger investigation.[53] Despite two Defense Department investigators on two joint task forces having looked into Hasan's communications, higher-ups at the Department of Defense stated they were not notified before the incident of such investigations.[54]

In March 2010, Al-Awlaki alleged that the Obama administration attempted to portray Hasan's actions as an individual act of violence from an estranged individual, and that it attempted to suppress information to cushion the reaction of the American public. He said:

Until this moment the administration is refusing to release the e-mails exchanged between myself and Nidal. And after the operation of our brother Umar Farouk the initial comments coming from the administration were looking the same -- another attempt at covering up the truth. But Al Qaeda cut off Obama from deceiving the world again by issuing their statement claiming responsibility for the operation.[55]

In July 2009 he was transferred from Washington's Walter Reed Medical to Fort Hood.

Hasan gave away furniture from his home on the morning of the shooting, saying he was going to be deployed.[56][57] He also handed out copies of the Qur'an, along with his business cards which listed a Maryland phone number and read "Behavioral Heatlh [sic] – Mental Health – Life Skills | Nidal Hasan, MD, MPH | SoA(SWT) | Psychiatrist".[56][57] According to investigators, the acronym "SoA" is commonly used on jihadist websites as an acronym for "Soldier of Allah" or "Servant of Allah", and SWT is commonly used by Muslims to mean "subhanahu wa ta'ala" (Glory to God).[58] The cards did not reflect his military rank.

Possible motivation

Immediately after the shooting, analysts and public officials openly debated Hasan's motive and preceding psychological state: A military activist, Selena Coppa, remarked that Hasan's psychiatrist colleagues "failed to notice how deeply disturbed someone right in their midst was."[18] A spokesperson for U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison, one of the first officials to comment on Hasan's background,[59] told reporters that Hasan was upset about his deployment to Afghanistan on November 28.[60][61] Noel Hamad, Hasan's aunt,[62] said that the family was not aware he was being sent to Afghanistan.[63]

The Dallas Morning News reported on November 17 that ABC News, citing anonymous sources, reported that investigators suspect that the shootings were triggered by superiors' refusal to process Hasan’s requests that some of his patients be prosecuted for war crimes based on statements they made during psychiatric sessions with him. Dallas attorney Patrick McLain, a former Marine, opined that Hasan may have been legally justified in reporting what patients disclosed, but that it was impossible to be sure without knowing exactly what was said, while fellow psychiatrists complained to superiors that Hasan's actions violated doctor-patient confidentiality.[64]

U.S. Senator Joseph Lieberman called for a probe by the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, which he chairs. Lieberman said "it's premature to reach conclusions about what motivated Hasan ... I think it's very important to let the Army and the FBI go forward with this investigation before we reach any conclusions."[65][66] Two weeks later, Lieberman labeled the shooting "the most destructive terrorist attack on America since September 11, 2001."[67]

Michael Welner, M.D., a leading forensic psychiatrist with experience examining mass shooters, said that the shooting had elements common to both ideological and workplace mass shootings.[68] Welner, who believed the motivation was to create a "spectacle", said that a trauma care worker, even one afflicted with stress, would not be expected to be homicidal toward his patients unless his ideology trumped his Hippocratic oath–and this was borne out in his shouting "Allahu Akhbar" as he killed the unarmed.[68] An analyst of terror investigations, Carl Tobias, opined that the attack did not fit the profile of terrorism, and was more reminiscent of the Virginia Tech shooting.[69]

However, Michael Scheuer, the retired former head of the Bin Laden Issue Station, and former U.S. Attorney General Michael Mukasey[70] have called the event a terrorist attack,[69] as has terrorism expert Walid Phares.[71] Retired General Barry McCaffrey said on Anderson Cooper 360° that "it's starting to appear as if this was a domestic terrorist attack on fellow soldiers by a major in the Army who we educated for six years while he was giving off these vibes of disloyalty to his own force."[72]

Some of Hasan's former colleagues have said he performed substandard work and occasionally unnerved them by expressing fervent Islamic views and deep opposition to the U.S.-led wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.[73]

Brian Levin of the Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism wrote that the case sits at the crossroads of crime, terrorism and mental distress.[74] He compared the possible role of religion to the beliefs of Scott Roeder, a Christian who murdered Dr. George Tiller, who practiced abortion. Such offenders "often self-radicalize from a volatile mix of personal distress, psychological issues, and an ideology that can be sculpted to justify and explain their anti-social leanings."[74]

Hasan's family has called the shooting "despicable and deplorable." They are currently working with Virginia law enforcement.[75]

Reaction

Army Secretary John McHugh and Chief of Staff Gen. George W. Casey, Jr., discuss shootings at a press conference at Fort Hood the day after the shootings.

In the hours after the shooting, other U.S. military bases stepped up their security measures.[76][77] In an open letter to President Obama, the Fort Hood Iraq Veterans Against the War chapter in part demanded that the military radically overhaul its mental health care system and halt the practice of repeated deployment of the same troops.[78]

Lieutenant General Robert W. Cone, commander of III Corps at Fort Hood, called the attack "a terrible tragedy, stunning", saying the base community was "absolutely devastated."[79] He said that terrorism was not being ruled out, but preliminary evidence did not suggest that the shooting was terrorism.[80] A spokesman for the Defense Department called the shooting an "isolated and tragic case",[81] and Defense Secretary Robert Gates pledged that his department would do "everything in its power to help the Fort Hood community get through these difficult times."[82] The chair of the Senate Armed Services Committee, Carl Levin, and numerous politicians, expressed condolences to the victims and their families.[1][82][83][84]

U.S. President Barack Obama at the memorial for the victims of the shootings at Fort Hood

The U.S. President's initial response to the attack came as he was about to make a speech at the Tribal Nations Conference for America’s 564 federally recognized Native American tribes. Obama has been criticized by the media for not opening his speech by addressing the shooting, and for using colloquialisms in opening remarks before mentioning the incident.[85][86][87]

Homeland Security Secretary Janet Napolitano stated "we object to—and do not believe—that anti-Muslim sentiment should emanate from this ... This was an individual who does not, obviously, represent the Muslim faith."[88] Chief of Staff Gen. George W. Casey, Jr. said "I'm concerned that this increased speculation could cause a backlash against some of our Muslim soldiers ... Our diversity, not only in our Army, but in our country, is a strength. And as horrific as this tragedy was, if our diversity becomes a casualty, I think that’s worse."[89]

The League of United Latin American Citizens issued a statement referring to the loss of a "LULAC family member".[90] President of the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence, Paul Helmke, said that "This latest tragedy, at a heavily fortified army base, ought to convince more Americans to reject the argument that the solution to gun violence is to arm more people with more guns in more places."[91] However, Lt. General Cone stated the on-base firearm policy: "As a matter of practice, we do not carry weapons on Fort Hood. This is our home."[92] Military weapons are only used for training or by base security, and personal weapons must be kept locked away by the provost marshal.[93] Specialist Jerry Richard, a soldier working at the Readiness Center, expressed the opinion that this policy had left them unnecessarily vulnerable to violent assaults: "Overseas you are ready for it. But here you can't even defend yourself."[94]

The Council on American-Islamic Relations condemned the shooting, expressing prayers for the victims and condolences for their families.[95][96] Salman al-Ouda,[97] a dissident Saudi cleric and former inspiration to Osama bin Laden, condemned the shooting saying the incident would have bad consequences: "...undoubtedly this man might have a psychological problem; he may be a psychiatrist but he [also] might have had psychological distress, as he was being commissioned to go to Iraq or Afghanistan, and he was capable of refusing to work whatever the consequences were." The senior analyst at the NEFA Foundation described Ouda’s comments as "a good indication of how far on a tangent Anwar al-Awlaki is."[98]

Soon after the attack, Anwar al-Awlaki posted praise for Hasan for the shooting on his website, and encouraged other Muslims serving in the military to "follow in the footsteps of men like Nidal."[50] "Nidal Hasan is a hero, the fact that fighting against the U.S. army is an Islamic duty today cannot be disputed. Nidal has killed soldiers who were about to be deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan in order to kill Muslims."[99] Adam Yahiye Gadahn, the American-born al-Qaeda spokesman, declared Hasan a "pioneer" whose actions at Fort Hood should be followed by other Muslims.[100]

Investigation and prosecution

The criminal investigation is being conducted jointly by the FBI, the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command, and the Texas Rangers Division.[101] As a member of the military, Hasan is subject to the jurisdiction of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (military law). He is being represented by Belton, Texas-based John P. Galligan, a criminal defense attorney and retired US Army Colonel.[102] Hasan regained consciousness on November 9, but refused to talk to investigators.[103] The investigative officer in charge of his article 32 hearing is Colonel James L. Pohl, who had previously lead the Abu Ghraib abuses, and is the Chief Presiding Officer of the Guantanamo military commissions.[104]

On November 9, the FBI said that investigators believed Hasan had apparently acted alone. They disclosed that they had reviewed evidence which included 2008 conversations with an individual that an official identified as Anwar al-Awlaki, but said they did not find any evidence that Hasan had direct help or outside orders in the shootings.[105] According to a November 11 press release, after preliminary examination of Hasan’s computers and internet activity, they had found no information to indicate he had any co-conspirators or was part of a broader terrorist plot "at this point" of what they stressed were the "early stages" of the review.[101] Though Hasan had frequented jihadist web sites promoting radical Islamic views, they said no e-mail communications with outside facilitators or known terrorists were found. An official said, though, that the investigation is "fluid and still in its early stages." Investigators were evaluating reports that, in 2001, Hasan had attended a mosque in Virginia headed by Anwar al-Awlaki and attended by two of the 9/11 hijackers. The radical imam was living in Yemen, and had been accused of aiding the 9/11 plot. Investigators were determining if al-Awlaki's teachings could have radicalized Hasan. Sources said "We need to look at potential inspiration."[106]

Army officials stated "Right now we're operating on the belief that he acted alone and had no help". No motive for the shootings was offered, but they believed Hasan had authored an Internet posting that appeared to support suicide bombings.[107] Senator Lieberman opined "if the reports that we're receiving of various statements he made, acts he took, are valid, he had turned to Islamist extremism." Rep. John Carter remarked "When he shouted 'Allahu Akbar,' he gave a clear indication that his faith or Muslim view of the world had something to do with it."[107]

In pressing charges on Hasan, the Department of Defense and the DoJ agreed that Hasan would be prosecuted in a military court, which observers noted was consistent with investigators concluding he had acted alone.[108]

During a November 21 hearing in Hasan's hospital room, a magistrate ruled that there was probable cause that Hasan committed the November 5 shooting, and ordered that he be held in pre-trial confinement after he is released from hospital care.[88] On November 12 and December 2, respectively, Hasan was charged with 13 counts of premeditated murder and 32 counts of attempted murder by the Army; he may face additional charges at court-martial.[5][6]

A 14th count of murder for the death of the unborn child of Francheska Velez has not been filed.[109] Such charge is available to prosecutors under the Unborn Victims of Violence Act and Article 119a of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.[110] If civilian prosecutors indict him for being part of a terrorist plot, it could justify moving all or part of his case into federal criminal courts under U.S. anti-terrorism laws.[111][112]

The military justice system rarely carries out capital punishment—even in mass murder cases—and no executions have been carried out since 1961.[112][113] (From 1916 to 1961, the U.S. Army executed 135 people.)[114] A Rasmussen national survey found that 65% of Americans favored the death penalty in Hasan's case, and that 60% want the case investigated as an act of terrorism.[115]

Internal investigations

Main article: Joint Terrorism Task Force

The FBI noted that Hasan had first been brought to their attention in December 2008 by a Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF). Communications between Hasan and al-Awlaki, and other similar communications, were reviewed and considered to be consistent with Hasan's research on radical beliefs at the Walter Reed Medical Center. "Because the content of the communications was explainable by his research and nothing else derogatory was found, the JTTF concluded that Major Hasan was not involved in terrorist activities or terrorist planning." However, both the FBI and the Department of Defense plan to review if this assessment was handled correctly.[108]

FBI Director Robert Mueller appointed William Webster, a former director of the FBI, to conduct an independent FBI review of the bureau's handling of possible warning signs from Hasan. The review is expected to be long-term and in-depth, with Webster selected for the job due to being, as Mueller put it, "uniquely qualified" for such a review.[116]

On January 15, 2010, the Department of Defense released the findings of the the Department of Defense investigation. That review found that the Department was unprepared to defend against internal threats. Secretary Robert Gates said that previous incidents had not drawn enough attention to workplace violence and "self-radicalization" within the military. He also suggested that some officials may be held responsible for not drawing attention to Hasan prior to the shooting.[117] The Department report did not touch upon Hasan's motivations, including his multiple contacts with Anwar al-Awlaki, and his yelling "Allahu Akhbar" as he began the attack. The leaders of the investigation, former Secretary of the Army Togo West and retired Admiral Vernon Clark, responded to criticism by saying their "concern is with actions and effects, not necessarily with motivations", and that they did not want to conflict with the criminal investigation on Hasan that was under way.[118]

James Corum, a retired Army Reserve Lieutenant Colonel and Dean at the Baltic Defence College in Estonia, called the Defense Department report "a travesty", for failing to mention Hasan's devotion to Islam and his radicalization prior to the attack.[119] Texas Representative John Carter was also critical of the report, saying he felt the government was "afraid to be accused of profiling somebody".[120] John Lehman, a member of the 9/11 Commission and Secretary of the Navy under Ronald Reagan, said he felt that the report "shows you how deeply entrenched the values of political correctness have become."[118] Similarly, columnist Debra Saunders of the San Francisco Chronicle, in a column entitled "Political correctness on Fort Hood at Pentagon," wrote: "Even ... if the report's purpose was to craft lessons to prevent future attacks, how could they leave out radical Islam?"[121]

After Louay Safi received complaints about his lectures about Islam at Fort Hood after the incident, the Dallas Morning News was informed in January that Safi was under investigation and that his lectures had been suspended. Thirteen Republican members of Congress asked Defense Secretary Robert Gates on Dec. 17 to halt lectures by anyone affiliated with ISNA on military bases. [122]

In February 2010 the Boston Globe was given access to an internal report detailing results of the Army's investigation. The report was not made public to protect the identities of officers who may face disciplinary action. According to the Globe, it concludes officers within the Army were aware of Hasan's tendencies toward radical Islam since 2005. The report adduced one incident in 2007 in which Hasan gave a classroom presentation titled "Is the War on Terrorism a War on Islam: An Islamic Perspective". The instructor interrupted Hasan's presentation as it appeared he was justifying terrorism, according to the Globe. Despite receiving complaints about this presentation, and other statements suggestive of his conflicted loyalties, Hasan's superior officers took no action, believing Hasan's comments were protected under the First Amendment and that having a Muslim psychiatrist contributed to diversity. The investigation noted the First Amendment does not apply to soldiers the same way as for civilians, and his statements might have been grounds for removing him from service.[123]

See also

Template:Texas portal

References

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