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Theatre of India

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Performer playing Sugriva in the Koodiyattam form of Sanskrit theatre.

The earliest form of the theatre of India was the Sanskrit theatre.[1] It began after the development of Greek and Roman theatre and before the development of theatre in other parts of Asia.[2] It emerged sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE and flourished between the 1st century CE and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in the history of India during which hundreds of plays were written.[3] With the Islamic conquests that began in the 10th and 11th centuries, theatre was discouraged or forbidden entirely.[4] Later, in an attempt to re-assert indigenous values and ideas, village theatre was encouraged across the subcontinent, developing in a large number of regional languages from the 15th to the 19th centuries.[5] Modern Indian theatre developed during the period of colonial rule under the British Empire, from the mid-19th century until the mid-20th.[6] In order to resist its use by Indians as an instrument of protest against colonial rule, the British Government imposed the Dramatic Performances Act in 1876. From the last half of the 19th century, theatres in India experienced a boost in numbers and practice. After Indian independence in 1947, theatres spread throughout India as one of the means of entertainment. As a diverse, multi-cultural nation, the theatre of India cannot be reduced to a single, homogenous trend. In contemporary India, the major competition with its theatre is that represented by growing television industry and the spread of films produced in the Indian film industry based in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), known as "Bollywood". Lack of finance is another major obstacle.

History of Indian theatre

Sanskrit theatre

Main article: Sanskrit drama
See also: Koodiyattam

The earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century CE.[7] The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre.[8] The ancient Vedas (hymns from between 1500 to 1000 BCE that are among the earliest examples of literature in the world) contain no hint of it (although a small number are composed in a form of dialogue) and the rituals of the Vedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre.[9] The Mahābhāṣya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.[10] This treatise on grammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings of theatre in India.[11]

The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni. The Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting, dance, music, dramatic construction, architecture, costuming, make-up, props, the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre.[12] In doing so, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in a [hereditary process]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain.

Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (sutradhara), who may also have acted.[13] This task was thought of as being analagous to that of a puppeteer--the literal meaning of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads".[14] The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.[15] There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played character their own age, while others played those different to their own (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre, the Treatise gives most attention to acting (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.[16]

Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature.[17] It utilised stock characters, such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. Kālidāsa in the 1st century BCE, is arguably considered to be ancient India's greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the Mālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra), Vikramuurvashiiya (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and Abhijñānaśākuntala (The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired by a story in the Mahabharata and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated into English and German. Śakuntalā (in English translation) influenced Goethe's Faust (1808-1832).[18]

The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti (c. 7th century CE). He is said to have written the following three plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic of Ramayana. The powerful Indian emperor Harsha (606-648) is credited with having written three plays: the comedy Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda.

Theatre In Rukmini Devi

Theatre in medieval India

Theatre in India under @###3@$

Under British colonial rule, modern Indian theatre began when a theatre was started in Belgachia. Rabindranath Tagore, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, is probably India's best-known modern playwright.[19] His plays are written in Bengali and include Chitra (Chitrangada, 1892), The King of the Dark Chamber (Raja, 1910), The Post Office (Dakghar, 1913), and Red Oleander (Raktakarabi, 1924).[20]

Indian theatre after Independence (1947-1992)

Contemporary (post-1992) Indian theatre


Improvisation

Improvisational theatre (also known as improv or impro) is a form of theatre in which the actors use improvisational acting techniques to perform spontaneously. Improvisers typically use audience suggestions to guide the performance as they create dialogue, setting, and plot extemporaneously.

Many improvisational actors also work as scripted actors and "improv" techniques are often taught in standard acting classes. The basic skills of listening, clarity, confidence, and performing instinctively and spontaneously are considered important skills for actors to develop.

Improvisational Theatre in India is largely used for educational, interventional and entertainment purposes. The traces of Improvisational theatre in India dates back to the 1990s with the advent of Forum theatre with Janasanskriti under the leadership of Sanjoy Ganguly. After that in 1999, a team from the US with Bev Hoskins and Mary Good introduced Playback theatre to India. Thus Playback theatre and Forum theatre began to take its shape in the remotest parts of India, such as Karur, Chennai, West Bengal, as well as Bangalore too. Yours Truly Theatre, a Bangalore-based group, developed "complete the story", an indigenous format of improvisational theatre developed under the leadership of Ranji David and Nandini Rao in 2006. In 2009, they also developed another form of improvisational theatre called "mushyara theatre".

Improvisational Theatre groups in India:

Improvisational Theatre forms practiced in India:

Notable theatres in India in different Indian languages and regions

Notable people

Ancient Indian playwrights

Medieval age

Playwrights working under British rule

Post-Independence theatre-makers

Notable theatre directors:

Notable playwrights

Forms of Indian theatre

Traditional Indian theatre

See Guru Padma Shri Mani Madhava Chakyar, Mani Damodara Chakyar and Kutiyattam.

Indian folk theatre

Bhavai (strolling players) is a popular folk theatre form of Gujarat, while Jatra has been popular in Bengal, another folk theatre form popular in Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh is Swang, which is dialogue-oriented rather than movement-oriented. Yakshagana is a very popular theatre art in Karnataka. It is semi-classical in nature and involves music and songs based on carnatic music, rich costumes, storylines based on the Mahabharata and Ramayana. It also employs spoken dialogue in-between its songs that gives it a folk art flavour.

Modern Indian theatre

Indian puppet theatre

Yakshagana is a popular semi-classical theatre art from costal Karnataka. It uses rich costumes, music, dance, and dialogue. Puppet shows in parts of Karnataka uses all these elements of yakshagana to depict stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Indian street theatre

Notable awards and festivals

Awards

Festivals of theatre in India

Institutional support in Indian theatre

  • Department of Culture, Govt. of India, Ministry Of Human Resources Development
  • Sangeet Natak Academy, New Delhi
  • Zonal Cultural Centres

Notable groups and companies

Notable theatres

Notable practitioiners who have moved from theatre to films

Training

References

  1. ^ Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
  2. ^ Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
  3. ^ Brandon (1997, 70) and Richmond (1998, 516).
  4. ^ Brandon (1997, 72) and Richmond (1998, 516).
  5. ^ Brandon (1997, 72), Richmond (1998, 516), and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
  6. ^ Richmond (1998, 516) and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 13).
  7. ^ Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 516-517).
  8. ^ Richmond (1998, 516).
  9. ^ Richmond (1998, 516).
  10. ^ Richmond (1998, 517).
  11. ^ Richmond (1998, 517).
  12. ^ Richmond (1998, 517).
  13. ^ Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 517).
  14. ^ Richmond (1998, 517).
  15. ^ Richmond (1998, 518).
  16. ^ Richmond (1998, 518). The literal meaning of abhinaya is "to carry forwards".
  17. ^ Brandon (1981, xvii).
  18. ^ Brandon (1981, xvii).
  19. ^ Banham (1998, 1051).
  20. ^ Banham (1998, 1051).

Sources

  • Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0521434378.
  • Brandon, James R. 1981. Introduction. In Baumer and Brandon (1981, xvii-xx).
  • ---, ed. 1997. The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre.' 2nd, rev. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0521588225.
  • Brockett, Oscar G. and Franklin J. Hildy. 2003. History of the Theatre. Ninth edition, International edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0205410502.
  • Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds. 1981. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993. ISBN 978-8120807723.
  • Richmond, Farley. 1998. "India." In Banham (1998, 516-525).
  • Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swann, and Phillip B. Zarrilli, eds. 1993. Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. U of Hawaii P. ISBN 978-0824813222.

Further reading

  • Wilson, Horace Hayman (tr. from the Original Sanskrit) (1827). Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus. V.Holcroft at The Asiatic Press, Calcutta.
  • ., Dhanamjaya (1912). The Dasarupa or Treatise on Ten Forms of Drama - A Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy. Columbia University. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • ., Nandikeśvara (1917). The Mirror of Gesture - Being the Abhinaya Darpana of Nandikeśvara. Harvard University Press. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • The Indian theatre, by Mulk Raj bansal, Published by D. Dobson, 1950.
  • Theatre in India, by Balwant Gargi. Published by Theatre Arts Books, 1962.
  • A panorama of theatre in India, by Som Benegal. Published by Popular Prakashan [for] Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), 1968.
  • Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance, by Farley P. Richmond, Darius L. Swann, Phillip B. Zarrilli. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993. ISBN 81-208-0981-5.
  • Indian theatre: theatre of origin, theatre of freedom, by Ralph Yarrow. Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-7007-1412-X.
  • The Oxford companion to Indian theatre, by Ananda Lal. Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-564446-8.
  • www.jagrancityplus.com/storydetail.aspx?cityid=22...155. jagrancityplus.
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