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Stephen Hawking
Stephen Hawking at NASA, 1980s
Born
Stephen William Hawking

(1942-01-08) 8 January 1942 (age 82)
Oxford, England, United Kingdom
NationalityBritish
Alma materOxford University
Cambridge University
Known forBlack holes
Theoretical cosmology
Quantum gravity
Hawking radiation
Spouse(s)Jane Hawking
(m. 1965–1991, divorced)
Elaine Mason
(m. 1995–2006, divorced)
AwardsWolf Prize (1988)
Prince of Asturias Award (1989)
Copley Medal (2006)
Presidential Medal of Freedom (2009)
Scientific career
FieldsApplied mathematics
Theoretical physics
Cosmology
InstitutionsCambridge University
California Institute of Technology
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
Doctoral advisorDennis Sciama
Other academic advisorsRobert Berman
Doctoral studentsBruce Allen
Raphael Bousso
Fay Dowker
Malcolm Perry
Bernard Carr
Gary Gibbons
Harvey Reall
Don Page
Tim Prestidge
Raymond Laflamme
Julian Luttrell

Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (born 8 January 1942) is a British theoretical physicist and cosmologist, whose scientific books and public appearances have made him an academic celebrity. He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and in 2009 was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States.

Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge between 1979 and 2009. Subsequently, he became research director at the university's Centre for Theoretical Cosmology.

Hawking's key scientific works to date have included providing, with Roger Penrose, theorems regarding gravitational singularities in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes should emit radiation, which is today known as Hawking radiation (or sometimes as Bekenstein-Hawking radiation). He has also achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general; these include A Brief History of Time, which stayed on the British Sunday Times best-sellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.

Hawking has a motor neurone disease that is related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a condition that has progressed over the years. He is now almost completely paralysed and communicates through a speech generating device. He has been married twice and has three children.

Early life

Stephen Hawking was born on 8 January 1942 to Frank Hawking, a research biologist, and Isobel Hawking.[1] He has two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted brother, Edward.[2] Although Hawking's parents were living in North London, they moved to Oxford while his mother was pregnant with Stephen, desiring a safer location for the birth of their first child (London was under attack at the time by the Luftwaffe).[3] According to Hawking, a German V-2 missile struck only a few streets away.[4]

After Hawking was born, the family moved back to London, where his father headed the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research.[1] In 1950, Hawking and his family moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire, where he attended St Albans High School for Girls from 1950 to 1953 (At that time, boys could attend the girls' school until the age of 10).[2][3] From the age of 11, he attended St Albans School, where he was a good, but not exceptional, student.[5]

Hawking was always interested in science.[5] Inspired by his mathematics teacher, he originally wanted to study the subject at university. However, Hawking's father wanted him to apply to University College, Oxford, where his father had attended. As University College did not have a mathematics fellow at that time, it would not accept applications from students who wished to study that discipline. Hawking therefore applied to read natural sciences, in which he gained a scholarship. Once at University College, Hawking specialised in physics.[3] His interests during this time were in thermodynamics, relativity, and quantum mechanics. While at Oxford, he coxed a rowing team, which, he stated, helped relieve his immense boredom at the university.[6] His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said in The New York Times Magazine: "It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it. ... Of course, his mind was completely different from all of his contemporaries".[5]

Hawking was passing, but his unimpressive study habits[7] resulted in a final examination score on the borderline between first and second class honours, making an "oral examination" necessary. Berman said of the oral examination: "And of course the examiners then were intelligent enough to realize they were talking to someone far more clever than most of themselves".[5]

After receiving his B.A. degree at Oxford in 1962, he stayed to study astronomy. He decided to leave when he found that studying sunspots, which was all the observatory was equipped for, did not appeal to him and that he was more interested in theory than in observation.[5] He left Oxford for Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he engaged in the study of theoretical astronomy and cosmology.

Career

Hawking in Cambridge
Hawking with String theorists David Gross and Edward Witten

Almost as soon as he arrived at Cambridge, he started developing symptoms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, known colloquially in the United States as Lou Gehrig's disease), a type of motor neurone disease which would cost him almost all neuromuscular control. During his first two years at Cambridge, he did not distinguish himself, but, after the disease had stabilised and with the help of his doctoral tutor, Dennis William Sciama, he returned to working on his PhD.[5]

In the late 1960s, he and his Cambridge friend and colleague, Roger Penrose, applied a new, complex mathematical model they had created from Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity.[8] This led, in 1970, to Hawking proving the first of many singularity theorems; such theorems provide a set of sufficient conditions for the existence of a gravitational singularity in space-time. This work showed that, far from being mathematical curiosities which appear only in special cases, singularities are a fairly generic feature of general relativity.[9]

Hawking was elected as one of the youngest Fellows of the Royal Society in 1974, and in the same year he accepted the Sherman Fairchild Distinguished Scholar visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to work with his friend, Kip Thorne, who was a faculty member there.[1] He continues to have ties with Caltech, spending a month each year there since 1992.[10]

He supplied a mathematical proof, along with Brandon Carter, Werner Israel and D. Robinson, of John Wheeler's no-hair theorem – namely, that any black hole is fully described by the three properties of mass, angular momentum, and electric charge.[11] Following analysis of gamma ray emissions, Hawking suggested that after the Big Bang, primordial miniature black holes were formed. With Bardeen and Carter, he proposed the four laws of black hole mechanics, drawing an analogy with thermodynamics.[12] In 1974, he calculated that black holes should thermally create and emit subatomic particles, known today as Bekenstein-Hawking radiation, until they exhaust their energy and evaporate.[13]

In collaboration with Jim Hartle, Hawking developed a model in which the universe had no boundary in space-time, replacing the initial singularity of the classical Big Bang models with a region akin to the North Pole: one cannot travel north of the North Pole, as there is no boundary.[14] While originally the no-boundary proposal predicted a closed universe, discussions with Neil Turok led to the realisation that the no-boundary proposal is also consistent with a universe which is not closed.[15]

Along with Thomas Hertog at CERN, in 2006 Hawking proposed a theory of "top-down cosmology," which says that the universe had no unique initial state, and therefore it is inappropriate for physicists to attempt to formulate a theory that predicts the universe's current configuration from one particular initial state.[16] Top-down cosmology posits that in some sense, the present "selects" the past from a superposition of many possible histories. In doing so, the theory suggests a possible resolution of the fine-tuning question.[17]

Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge for 30 years, taking up the post in 1979 and retiring on 1 October 2009.[18][19] Subsequently, he became research director at the university's Centre for Theoretical Cosmology. He is also a fellow of Gonville and Caius College at Cambridge and a distinguished research chair at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, Ontario.[20]

Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet

Main article: Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet
U.S. President Barack Obama talks with Stephen Hawking in the Blue Room of the White House before a ceremony presenting him and 15 others the Presidential Medal of Freedom on 12 August 2009. The Medal of Freedom is the nation's highest civilian honour.

In 1997 Hawking made a public bet with Kip Thorne and John Preskill of Caltech concerning the black hole information paradox.[21] Thorne and Hawking argued that since general relativity made it impossible for black holes to radiate, and lose information, the mass-energy and information carried by Hawking Radiation must be "new", and must not originate from inside the black hole event horizon. Since this contradicted the idea under quantum mechanics of microcausality, quantum mechanics would need to be rewritten. Preskill argued the opposite, that since quantum mechanics suggests that the information emitted by a black hole relates to information that fell in at an earlier time, the view of black holes given by general relativity must be modified in some way.[22] The winner of the bet was to receive an encyclopedia of the loser's choice, from which information may be accessed.[21]

In 2004, Hawking announced that he was conceding the bet, and that he now believed that black hole horizons should fluctuate and leak information, in doing so providing Preskill with a copy of Total Baseball, The Ultimate Baseball Encyclopedia.[21] Comparing the useless information obtainable from a black hole to "burning an encyclopedia", Hawking commented, "I gave John an encyclopedia of baseball, but maybe I should just have given him the ashes."[21]

Human spaceflight

At the 50th anniversary of NASA in 2008, Hawking gave a keynote speech on the final frontier exhorting and inspiring the space technology community on why humans explore space.[23]

At the celebration of his 65th birthday on 8 January 2007, Hawking announced his plan to take a zero-gravity flight in 2007 to prepare for a future sub-orbital spaceflight on Virgin Galactic's space service. Billionaire Richard Branson pledged to pay all expenses for the latter, costing an estimated £100,000.[24] Stephen Hawking's zero-gravity flight in a "Vomit Comet" of Zero Gravity Corporation, during which he experienced weightlessness eight times, took place on 26 April 2007.[25] He became the first quadriplegic to float in zero gravity. This was the first time in 40 years that he moved freely, without his wheelchair. The fee is normally US$3,750 for 10 to 15 plunges, but Hawking was not required to pay the fee. Hawking was quoted before the flight saying:

Many people have asked me why I am taking this flight. I am doing it for many reasons. First of all, I believe that life on Earth is at an ever-increasing risk of being wiped out by a disaster such as sudden nuclear war, a genetically engineered virus, or other dangers. I think the human race has no future if it doesn't go into space. I therefore want to encourage public interest in space.[26]

In an interview with The Daily Telegraph, he suggested that space was the Earth's long term hope.[27] He continued this theme at a 2008 Charlie Rose interview.[28]

Existence and nature of extraterrestrial life

Hawking has indicated that he is almost certain that alien life exists in other parts of the universe, and he presented a mathematical basis for his assumptions. "To my mathematical brain, the numbers alone make thinking about aliens perfectly rational. The real challenge is to work out what aliens might actually be like".[29] He believes alien life not only certainly exists on planets but perhaps even in other places, like within stars or even floating in outer space. He has also warned that a few of these species might be intelligent and threaten Earth.[30] "If aliens visit us, the outcome would be much as when Columbus landed in America, which didn't turn out well for the Native Americans,"[29] he said. He has advocated that, rather than try to establish contact, humans should try to avoid contact with alien life forms.[29] At a George Washington University lecture in honour of NASA's fiftieth anniversary, Hawking theorised on the existence of extraterrestrial life, believing that "primitive life is very common and intelligent life is fairly rare".[31]

Illness

Hawking on 5 May 2006, during the press conference at the Bibliothèque nationale de France to inaugurate the Laboratory of Astronomy and Particles in Paris and the French release of his work God Created the Integers

Hawking's illness is markedly different from typical amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, known colloquially in the United States as Lou Gehrig's disease), because if confirmed, Hawking's case would make for the most protracted case ever documented. Survival for more than 10 years after diagnosis is uncommon for ALS; the longest documented durations, other than Hawking's, are 32 and 39 years and these cases were termed benign because of the lack of the typical progressive course.[32]

Symptoms of the disorder first appeared while he was enrolled at University of Cambridge; he lost his balance and fell down a flight of stairs, hitting his head. Worried that he would lose his genius, he took the Mensa test to verify that his intellectual abilities were intact.[6] The diagnosis of motor neurone disease came when Hawking was 21, shortly before his first marriage, and doctors said he would not survive more than two or three years. Hawking gradually lost the use of his arms, legs, and voice, and as of 2009 has been almost completely paralysed.[33]

By 1974, he was unable to feed himself or get out of bed. His speech became slurred so that he could be understood only by people who knew him well. During a visit to CERN in Geneva in 1985, Hawking contracted pneumonia, which in his condition was life-threatening as it further restricted his already limited respiratory capacity. He had an emergency tracheotomy, and as a result lost what remained of his ability to speak.[34] A Cambridge scientist built a speech generating device that enabled Hawking to write onto a computer with small movements of his body, and then have a voice synthesiser speak what he typed.[35]

He describes himself as lucky, despite his disease. Its slow progression has allowed him time to make influential discoveries and has not hindered him from having, in his own words, "a very attractive family".[35] When his wife, Jane, was asked why she decided to marry a man with a three-year life expectancy, she responded, "Those were the days of atomic gloom and doom, so we all had a rather short life expectancy". On 20 April 2009, Cambridge University released a statement saying that Hawking was "very ill" with a chest infection, and was admitted to Addenbrooke's Hospital.[36][37] The following day, it was reported that his new condition was "comfortable" and he would make a full recovery from the infection.[38]

Speech synthesiser

The DECtalk DTC01 voice synthesiser he once used, which has an American English accent, is no longer being produced. Asked why he has still kept the same voice after so many years, Hawking mentioned that he has not heard a voice he likes better and that he identifies with it. Hawking is said to be looking for a replacement since, aside from being obsolete, the synthesiser is both large and fragile by current standards. Although a mid-2009 corporate press release said that he had chosen NeoSpeech's VoiceText speech synthesiser as his new voice,[39] a 30 December 2011 interview with Hawking's technician indicates that he is still using an older synthesiser containing a card "which dates back to the 1980s" and that any upgrade would have to be the same voice, otherwise "it wouldn't be Stephen's voice any more."[40]

In Hawking's many media appearances, he appears to speak fluently through his synthesiser, but in reality, it is a tedious drawn-out process. Hawking's setup uses a predictive text entry system, which requires only the first few characters in order to auto-complete the word, but as he is only able to use his cheek for data entry, constructing complete sentences takes time. His speeches are prepared in advance, but having a live conversation with him provides insight as to the complexity and work involved. During a TED Conference talk, it took him seven minutes to answer a question.[41]

Recognition

Acclaim

On 19 December 2007, a statue of Hawking by artist Ian Walters was unveiled at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology, University of Cambridge.[42] In May 2008, the statue of Hawking was unveiled at the African Institute for Mathematical Sciences in Cape Town. The Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in San Salvador, El Salvador, is named in honour of Stephen Hawking, citing his scientific distinction and perseverance in dealing with adversity.[43] Stephen Hawking Building in Cambridge opened on 17 April 2007. The building belongs to Gonville and Caius College and is used as an undergraduate accommodation and conference facility.[44]

Awards and honours

Personal life

Stephen Hawking being presented by his daughter Lucy Hawking at the lecture he gave for NASA's 50th anniversary

Hawking has stated that he did not see much point in obtaining a doctorate if he were to die soon. Hawking later said that the real turning point was his 1965 marriage to Jane Wilde, a language student.[5] Jane cared for him until 1990 when the couple separated.[1] They had three children: Robert, Lucy, and Timothy.[1] Hawking married his nurse, Elaine Mason (who was previously married to David Mason, the designer of the first version of Hawking's talking computer),[50] in 1995.[1] In October 2006, Hawking filed for divorce from his second wife[51] amid claims by former nurses that she had abused him.[52] In 1999, Jane Hawking published a memoir, Music to Move the Stars, detailing the marriage and its breakdown; in 2010 she published a revised version, Travelling to Infinity, My Life with Stephen.[53] Hawking's daughter, Lucy, is a novelist.

Hawking supports the children's charity SOS Children's Villages UK.[54] and has stated that his view on how to live life is to "seek the greatest value of our action".[55] He strongly opposed the US-led Iraq War, calling it "a war crime" and "based on lies". In 2004, he personally attended a demonstration against the war in Trafalgar Square, and participated in a public reading of the names of Iraqi war victims.[56][57]

When asked to name a teacher who had inspired him, Hawking named his secondary school mathematics teacher Dikran Tahta.[58] He maintains his connection with St Albans School, giving his name to one of the four houses and to an extracurricular science lecture series.[59] He has visited it to deliver a lecture of his own and has also granted a lengthy interview to pupils working on the school magazine, The Albanian.

Main article: Stephen Hawking in popular culture
Hawking in 2007, experiencing zero gravity

Hawking has played himself on numerous television shows and has been portrayed in many more. He has played himself on a Red Dwarf anniversary special, played a hologram of himself on the episode "Descent" of Star Trek: The Next Generation,[60] appeared in a skit on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and appeared on the Discovery Channel special Alien Planet.[61] He has also played himself in several episodes of The Simpsons and Futurama, and has had an action figure made of his Simpsons likeness. In 2008, Hawking was the subject of and featured in the documentary series Stephen Hawking, Master of the Universe for Channel 4. In September 2008, Hawking presided over the unveiling of the 'Chronophage' (time-eating) Corpus Clock at Corpus Christi College Cambridge.[62] His actual synthesiser voice was used on parts of the Pink Floyd song "Keep Talking" from the 1994 album The Division Bell, as well as on Turbonegro's "Intro: The Party Zone" on their 2005 album Party Animals, Wolfsheim's "Kein Zurück (Oliver Pinelli Mix)".

Religious views

In his early work, Hawking spoke of God in a metaphorical sense, such as in A Brief History of Time: "If we discover a complete theory, it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason – for then we should know the mind of God."[63] In the same book he suggested the existence of God was unnecessary to explain the origin of the universe.[64] His 2010 book The Grand Design and interviews with the Telegraph and the Channel 4 documentary Genius of Britain, clarify that he does not believe in a "personal" God.[65] Hawking writes, "The question is: is the way the universe began chosen by God for reasons we can't understand, or was it determined by a law of science? I believe the second." He adds, "Because there is a law such as gravity, the Universe can and will create itself from nothing."[65][66]

His ex-wife, Jane, has stated he was an atheist.[67] Hawking has stated that he is "not religious in the normal sense" and he believes that "the universe is governed by the laws of science. The laws may have been decreed by God, but God does not intervene to break the laws."[68] In an interview published in The Guardian newspaper, Hawking regarded the concept of Heaven as a myth, stating that there is "no heaven or afterlife" and that such a notion was a "fairy story for people afraid of the dark."[63][69]

Hawking contrasted religion and science in 2010, saying: "There is a fundamental difference between religion, which is based on authority, [and] science, which is based on observation and reason. Science will win because it works."[70]

Notable publications

Hawking's belief that the lay person should have access to his work led him to write a series of popular science books in addition to his academic work. The first of these, A Brief History of Time, was published on 1 April 1988 by Hawking, his family and friends, and some leading physicists. It stayed on the British Sunday Times best-sellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.[71] A Brief History of Time was followed by The Universe in a Nutshell (2001). A collection of essays titled Black Holes and Baby Universes (1993) was also popular. His book, A Briefer History of Time (2005), co-written by Leonard Mlodinow, updated his earlier works to make them accessible to an wider audience. In 2007 Hawking and his daughter, Lucy Hawking, published George's Secret Key to the Universe, a children's book focusing on science that Lucy Hawking described as "a bit like Harry Potter but without the magic."[72]

Technical

Children's fiction

These are co-written with his daughter Lucy.

Films and series

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Larsen (2005), p. x–xix.
  2. ^ a b Larsen (2005), pp. 3–5.
  3. ^ a b c O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. "Stephen William Hawking". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews. Retrieved 1 October 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Hawking (1994)
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Current Biography, 1984. New York City: H. W. Wilson Company. 1984. ISBN 0-88371-040-4.
  6. ^ a b Stone, Gene (1992). Hawking, Stephen (ed.). Stephen Hawking's A Brief History of Time: A Reader's Companion. New York: Bantam. p. 44. ISBN 0-553-07772-4.
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  11. ^ Stephen W. Hawking; Werner Israel (1989). Three hundred years of gravitation. Cambridge University Press. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  12. ^ Larsen (2005), p. 38
  13. ^ Hawking, SW (1974). "Black Hole Explosions". Nature. 248 (1): 30–31. Bibcode:1974Natur.248...30H. doi:10.1038/248030a0. Retrieved 23 March 2007.
  14. ^ Eric Baird (30 September 2007). Relativity in Curved Spacetime: Life Without Special Relativity. Chocolate Tree Books. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-9557068-0-6. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  15. ^ Tom Yulsman (2003). Origins: the quest for our cosmic roots. CRC Press. pp. 174–176. ISBN 978-0-7503-0765-9. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  16. ^ Ball, Philip (21 June 2006). "Hawking Rewrites History ... Backwards". Nature News Online. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
  17. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.73.123527, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.73.123527 instead.
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  21. ^ a b c d Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.72.084013, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.72.084013 instead.
  22. ^ Preskill, John. "John Preskill's comments about Stephen Hawking's concession". Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  23. ^ Hawking, Stephen W. (24 September 2008). "The final frontier". Cosmos Magazine. Retrieved 1 October 2009.
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  26. ^ "Physicist Hawking experiences zero gravity". CNN. 26 April 2007. Archived from the original on 4 May 2007. Retrieved 4 May 2007.
  27. ^ Highfield, Roger (16 October 2001). "Colonies in space may be only hope, says Hawking". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 5 August 2007.
  28. ^ "Charlie Rose – A conversation with Dr. Stephen Hawking & Lucy Hawking". Retrieved 24 February 2012.
  29. ^ a b c "Stephen Hawking warns over making contact with aliens". BBC News. 25 April 2010. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
  30. ^ Hickman, Leo (25 April 2010). "Stephen Hawking takes a hard line on aliens". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
  31. ^ "Primitive life 'likely elsewhere'". Channel 4 News. 22 April 2008. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
  32. ^ Mitsumoto, Hiroshi; Munsat, Theodore L, eds. (2001). Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis : a guide for patients and families. New York: Demos Medical Publishing. p. 36. ISBN 1-888799-28-5.
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  35. ^ a b "Living with ALS – Stephen Hawking". Retrieved 24 February 2012.
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  37. ^ "Scientist Hawking 'very ill'". CNN. 21 April 2009. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
  38. ^ Sample, Ian; Booth, Robert (21 April 2009). "Stephen Hawking expected to make full recovery". guardian.co.uk. London: Guardian News and Media. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
  39. ^ "Stephen Hawking chooses a new voice". Retrieved 10 August 2009.
  40. ^ de Lange, Catherine (30 December 2011). "The man who saves Stephen Hawking's voice". New Scientist.
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  44. ^ "The Stephen Hawking Building". BBC News. 18 April 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
  45. ^ Larsen (2005), p 63
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  54. ^ "Our Friends". SOS Children's Villages. Retrieved 6 May 2006.
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  57. ^ "Stephen Hawking: Iraq War a 'Crime'". Fox News. 2 November 2004. Retrieved 9 January 2012.
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  60. ^ Okuda (1999), p380
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  64. ^ Burgess, Anthony (29 December 1991). "Towards a Theory of Everything". The Observer. p. 42. Though A Brief History of Time brings in God as a useful metaphor, Hawking is an atheist
  65. ^ a b Roberts, Laura (2 September 2010). "Stephen Hawking: God was not needed to create the Universe". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
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  67. ^ Adams, Tim (4 April 2004). "A Brief History of a First Wife". Jane took much of her dramatic hope at the time from her faith, and still sees something of the irony in the fact that her Christianity gave her the strength to support her husband, the most profound atheist. 'Stephen, I hope, had belief in me that I could make everything possible for him, but he did not share my religious – or spiritual – faith'. {{cite news}}: Text "The Observer" ignored (help); Text "work" ignored (help)
  68. ^ "Pope sees physicist Hawking at evolution gathering | Science". Reuters. 31 October 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
  69. ^ "Stephen Hawking: Heaven Is A Myth". Retrieved 24 February 2012. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help)
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  71. ^ Radford, Tim (31 July 2009). "How God propelled Stephen Hawking into the bestsellers lists". guardian.co.uk. London: Guardian News and Media.
  72. ^ "Man must conquer other planets to survive, says Hawking". Daily Mail. Associated Newspapers. 13 June 2006. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
  73. ^ a b c "Books – Stephen Hawking". Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  74. ^ "The Hawking Paradox". 2005. Retrieved 9 February 2012.
  75. ^ "Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe". 3 March 2008. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
  76. ^ "Into the Universe, with Stephen Hawking". Discovery Channel. 2010. Retrieved 25 April 2010.

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Boslough, John (1985). Stephen Hawking's Universe. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-70763-2. A layman's guide to Stephen Hawking
  • Ferguson, Kitty (1991). Stephen Hawking: Quest For A Theory of Everything. Franklin Watts. ISBN 0-553-29895-X
  • Misner, Charles; Thorne, Kip S. & Wheeler, John Archibald (1995). Stephen Hawking A Biography. San Francisco: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32392-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Pickover, Clifford, Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-533611-5

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