Battle of Sharon
| Battle of Sharon | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Battle of Megiddo and the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I | |||||||
 Wrecked transport 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from Tulkarm on the Nablus road | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 France |
 Ottoman Empire German Empire | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
 Edmund Allenby Edward Bulfin Henry Chauvel |
Otto Liman von Sanders Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Jevad Pasha | ||||||
| Units involved | |||||||
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Yildirim Army Group
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The Battle of Sharon took place at the same time as the Battle of Nablus between 19 and 25 September 1918, both battles forming the set piece Battle of Megiddo during the final months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the First World War. The Battle of Sharon was fought by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) XXI Corps with the French Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie. They attacked the Ottoman front line held by the Yildirim Army Group's Eighth Army's XXII Corps and the German Asia Corps. Fighting ranged over a wide area from the Mediterranean Sea to the Rafat salient in the Judean Hills and well behind the lines when the Desert Mounted Corps rode through a gap established in the front line during the infantry attack. These mounted units eventually encircled the defenders, when much territory and many prisoners were captured.
The Battle of Sharon began with a Western Front style bombardment by mainly ground based artillery, supported by the firepower of two destroyers. Artillery also provided creeping barrages to cover the infantry assaults. The XXI Corps' 60th Division, launched an attack on the western section of the front line, in the coastal sector defended by the Eighth Army's XXII Corps. During the Battle of Tulkarm the 60th Division breached the front and second line trenches to eventually capture Tulkarm, the site of the Eighth Army headquarters. The main Tabsor system of trenches held by the Ottoman XXII Corps were attacked during the Battle of Tabsor by the 3rd (Lahore), 7th (Meerut) and the 75th Divisions which they captured. These three divisions subsequently advanced despite the XXII Corps being reinforced, to capture Et Tire and Masudiye Station. In the process of the battles for Tulkarm and Tabsor the 7th (Meerut) and 60th Divisions created a gap in the front line, for the Desert Mounted Corps to ride through. They advanced north and eastwards to the rear to capture the defenders lines of communication. The right flank of the Tulkarm and Tabsor battles was protected from assaults from the Eighth Army's Asia Corps by the 54th (East Anglian) Division and the French Colonial Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie which held and pivoted on the Rafat salient during the Battle of Arara, as the infantry battle progressed.
The cavalry phase of the battle of Sharon began soon after the initial infantry attack, when the 5th Cavalry Division led the way north up the Plain of Sharon followed by the 4th Cavalry Division with the Australian Mounted Division in reserve. These divisions rode across the Mount Carmel Range passes to occupy the Esdraelon Plain on 20 September. Here they cut the main Ottoman lines of communication. The 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions both converged to capture Afulah. The 4th Cavalry Division went on to capture Beisan in the afternoon. The Australian Mounted Division captured Jenin and many thousands of prisoners when they blocked the main line of retreat from Nablus to Damascus. Nazareth, the site of the Ottoman Army's Yildirim Army Group headquarters, was unsuccessfully attacked on 20 September during the Battle of Nazareth, when their Commander in Chief, Otto Liman von Sanders was forced to escape. The 5th Cavalry Division captured the town the next day and several days later this division also captured Haifa and Acre following the Battle of Haifa. On the last day of the Battle of Sharon, the Australian Mounted Division attacked a German reinforced rearguard garrison at Samakh, which had been put on the alert by von Sanders during his escape from Nazareth. The victory at the Battle of Samakh and the subsequent Capture of Tiberias ended the Battle of Sharon and the Battle of Megiddo. The Final Offensive of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign began the next day with the pursuit to Damascus.
Background
After the series of Central Powers defeats in 1917
- at Beersheba
- at Gaza
- at Mughar Ridge and the loss of Southern Palestine during retreat of the Seventh and Eighth Armies back into the Judean Hills, followed by
- the loss of Jerusalem,
several German and Ottoman army commanders in the region were replaced.
- General Erich von Falkenhayn commanding Yildirim Army Group was replaced by German General Otto Liman von Sanders
- Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein, commander of the Eighth Army was replaced by Djevad Pasha
- Cemal appointed Cemal Kucjuk Pasha to command the Fourth Army.[1]
- Mustafa Kemal had resigned his command of the Seventh Army in 1917, but was reinstated early in September 1918.[2]
Early in 1918, the main focus of the Ottoman Army's war effort turned from Palestine to Anatolia. This change of direction was heavily influenced by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed in March 1918 which ended the war on the Eastern Front between Imperial Russia and Imperial Germany. The focus of the Ottoman Army turned to the provinces and territories in the region lost by their Empire between 1877–1878 when the Russo-Turkish War occurred. Beginning late in March, the Ottoman Army embarked on a series of territorial conquests in the Caucasus. Erzerum, which had been captured by the Russians during the Erzerum Offensive in 1916, was retaken on 24 March 1918, followed by Van on 5 April and later Batum, Kars and Tiflis. The reoccupation of these former Ottoman possessions, however, brought little strategic advantage to the Ottoman Empire, compared with the potential benefits of military success in Palestine.[3]
Major offensive operations in Palestine also became a low priority for the British Army in March 1918 following the spectacular early successes of Erich Ludendorff's Spring Offensive in France. By July it had become clear that this German offensive on the Western Front had failed. A brief return to the battle of attrition in the trenches ensued before the Hundred Days Offensive began in August, which coincided with preparations for a renewal of the campaign in Palestine.[4][5] General Edmund Allenby was "very anxious to make a move in September" when he expected to overrun the German and Ottoman front line, capture the headquarters of the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies at Nablus and Tulkarm, advance to the Wadi el Fara road, and capture Jisr ed Damieh and Es Salt. Allenby had an ulterior motive, in addition to defeating the enemy and capturing a large area of their territory: "Another reason for moving to this line is that it will encourage both my own new Indian troops and my Arab Allies."[6]
Reorganisation of EEF
The War Office had decided, before the Spring Offensive to substitute British units in the EEF with British Indian Army units and to retain the relieved British units in Egypt as reinforcements. This changed when the Spring Offensive was launched and the British units were quickly redeployed to the Western Front.[7]
The 52nd (Lowland) Division was sent to France in early April.[8] The 74th (Yeomanry) Division along with nine British infantry battalions from the 10th, the 53rd, the 60th and the 75th Divisions were sent to France, between May and August 1918. The remaining British infantry battalions were reinforced by British Indian Army battalions.[9][10][11][Note 1] Infantry brigades were now reorganised with one British battalion and three British Indian Army battalions,[12] except one brigade in the 53rd Division which consisted of one South African and three British Indian Army battalions.[13]
By April 1918, 35 infantry and two pioneer battalions were preparing to move to Palestine.[14] Those battalions with numbers from 150 upwards, were formed by removing complete companies from experienced regiments then serving in Mesopotamia to form new battalions.[15][Note 2] The parent battalions also supplied first line transport and experienced officers with war-time service. The 198 men transferred from the 38th Dogras to the 3/151st Indian Infantry, included the commanding officer, two other British and four Indian officers.[15] The sepoys transferred were also very experienced. In September 1918 when the 2/151st Indian Infantry provided an honour guard for Allenby, among the men on parade were some who had served on five different fronts since 1914, and in eight pre-war campaigns.[15] Not all of these Indian battalions served in the infantry divisions, some were employed in defence of the lines of communication.[16]
The complexity of the reorganisation and reformation of these battalions was not without consequences. Of the 54 British Indian Army battalions deployed to Palestine, 22 had recent experience of combat, but had each lost an experienced company, which had been replaced by recruits. Ten battalions were formed from experienced troops who had never fought or trained together. The other 22 had not seen any prior service in the war, in total almost a third of the troops were recruits.[17] Within 44 British Indian Army battalions, the "junior British officers were green, and most could not speak Hindustani. In one battalion, only one Indian officer spoke English and only two British officers could communicate with their men."[18]
The British Indian Army's 7th (Meerut) Division which arrived in January 1918 was followed by the 3rd (Lahore) Division in April, 1918. Both these division were redeployed from the Mesopotamia campaign.[19][20][21][Note 3] Only the 54th (East Anglian) Division remained, as previously, an all British division.[22]
The British Indian Army's 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions which had fought on the Western Front since 1914 were disbanded. They were reformed in the Middle East, with Yeomanry regiments replacing British regular cavalry regiments, which remained on the Western Front.[23] Nine British yeomanry regiments from the Yeomanry Mounted Division (Desert Mounted Corps), were sent to France to reinforce the British Expeditionary Force fighting the Spring Offensive.[10] Three of the remaining yeomanry regiments, the 1/1st Dorset Yeomanry, the 1/1st County of London Yeomanry, and the 1/1st Staffordshire Yeomanry formerly in the 6th, 8th and 22nd Mounted Brigades, along with the newly arrived British Indian Army units transferred from France, formed the 4th Cavalry Division.[24][25] Another two of the remaining yeomanry regiments, the 1/1st Royal Gloucestershire Hussars and 1/1st Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry, formerly in the 5th and 7th Mounted Brigades, along with the newly arrived British Indian Army units transferred from France and the 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade which had served in the Sinai and Palestine since December 1914, formed the 5th Cavalry Division. Both the 4th and 5th Cavalry Division were assigned to the Desert Mounted Corps which had lost the Yeomanry Cavalry Division during the reorganisation.[26][27]Five of the six brigades in these two cavalry divisions were composed of one British yeomanry and two British Indian Army cavalry regiments.[28] The sixth brigade; the 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade's three lancer regiments of Imperial Service Troops represented and were wholly maintained by several Indian Princely states.[28] Eight of the 18 regiments in the six brigades were called lancers.[28][Note 4]
The Australian Mounted Division's yeomanry 5th Mounted Brigade was also dismounted and sent to reinforce the British Expeditionary Force. It was replaced by the newly formed 5th Light Horse Brigade. This brigade consisted of the Australian 14th and 15th Light Horse Regiments, formed from dismounted Imperial Camel Corps Brigade battalions and the French Régiment Mixte de Marche de Cavalerie. The 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades of this division each consisted of three light horse regiments made up of a headquarters and three squadrons. The 522 troopers in each of these regiment were armed with swords, a recent weapons upgrade for the light horse, bayonets,[29][30][31] and Lee Enfield rifles, but no lances.[32]
Battlefield
By September 1918, the front line held by the EEF infantry's XXI and XX Corps began near sea level on the Mediterranean coast about 12 miles (19 km) north of Jaffa and Arsuf. From this point the line extended about 15 miles (24 km) south-eastward across the Plain of Sharon, over the Judean Hills for about 15 miles (24 km), when it rose to a height of 1,500–2,000 feet (460–610 m) above sea level. From this height the front line dropped precipitously down to 1,000 feet (300 m) below sea level, to cross the Jordan Valley for approximately 18 miles (29 km). The front line ended east of the Dead Sea in the foothills of the Mountains of Gilead/Moab.[33][34]
The advance by Desert Mounted Corps' cavalry, would take them north on the coastal Plain of Sharon and across the Mount Carmel Range. This rugged mountain range, approximately 7 miles (11 km) wide, stretched northward from the Judean Hills to end just to the south of Haifa. Only two passes existed which could be negotiated by the mounted force. The northern pass linked the Plain of Sharon via Abu Shuheh to arrive on the Esdrealon Plain (also known as the Jezreel Valley and the ancient Plain of Armageddon) south–east of Nazareth. The southern pass linked the coast via Musmus to arrive at Megiddo on the Esdrealon Plain.[33][35][Note 5] However, the passes could be easily defended by a relatively small force which would be hard to capture in the mountainous terrain. If the cavalry encountered such defences in the Mount Carmel passes a protracted campaign would require another large infantry attack.[35]
The successful occupation of the Esdraelon Plain, 40 miles (64 km) behind the Ottoman front line, would place Desert Mounted Corps in the rear of the two Ottoman armies fighting in the Judean Hills.[35][33] The cavalry would then be in a position to quickly control three lowland areas forming a semicircle around the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills, from the Plain of Sharon, across the Esdrealon Plain to the Jordan Valley. They would then control the important Ottoman communications hubs at Afulah and Beisan and all the main Ottoman lines of communication.[33]
The Seventh and Eighth Ottoman armies were supplied by two railways, one from Haifa on the Mediterranean coast and the main railway via Beisan across the Jordan River to Deraa, Damascus and on to Istanbul as well as good roads from Haifa and Damascus, via Nazareth.[33][36] From Deraa the extensive railway network, branched into two lines. The westward branch line became the Palestine Railways crossing the Jordan River at Jisr Mejamie to enter the Esdrealon Plain. Here the Jezreel Valley railway ran southwards down the west bank of the Jordan River to Beisan on the western edge of the Esdrealon Plain, then turned westward to run parallel to the front line in the Judean Hills, to Afulah. From there the railway forked again into two lines: a branch line running north–westerly to Haifa on the Mediterranean coast, while the main line turned south to Jenin. From Jenin on the southern edge of the Esdrealon Plain, the railway wound through a narrow pass in the foothills to climb to Messudieh Junction in the Judean Hills where it again branched into two lines. One line continued south–eastward to Nablus the Seventh Army headquarters, on the main road to Jenin, Nazareth and Damascus. The second line ran westward to Tulkarm and the Eighth Army headquarters before turning south to reach railhead behind the Eighth Army' front line on the coastal plain. The second rail line, the Hejaz railway from Deraa continued east of the Jordan River in a southerly direction to supply the Ottoman Fourth Army headquarters at Amman, the garrisons at Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt and forces scattered along several hundred miles of the southern Hejaz railway.[35]
Prelude
Attacking force
The XXI Corps commanded by the British Lieutenant General Edward S. Bulfin consisted of the 3rd (Lahore), 7th (Meerut), 54th (East Anglian), 60th and 75th Divisions with the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie. These units were supported by machine gun squadrons, Corps Troops' Composite Regiment (1 squadron Duke of Lancashire Yeomanry and two squadrons of 1/1st Herts. Yeomanry) and the artillery of the XCV, XCVI, 100th, 102nd, Brigades RGA, the VIII and the IX Mountain Brigades RGA.[37]
The Desert Mounted Corps commanded by the Australian Lieutenant General Henry G. Chauvel, consisted of the 4th, 5th Cavalry and the Australian Mounted Divisions.[29][Note 6] They were supported by British Army Machine Gun Corps squadrons,[28] and by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade Machine Gun Squadron,[38] the 4th Light Horse Brigade Machine Gun Squadron,[39][40] and the 2nd New Zealand Machine Gun Squadron attached to the 5th Light Horse Brigade.[41] Armoured car support was provided by Nos. 11 and 12 Light Armoured Motor Batteries and Nos. 1 and 7 Light Car Patrols from the Machine Gun Corps. Artillery support was provided by the XIX Brigade which included RHA and HAC batteries.[29][42][43][Note 7]
A total of 54,800 beds were set aside in Palestine and Egypt, including convalescence and clearing hospitals. There were 22,524 hospital beds available in Egypt. A hospital centre in the Deir el Belah and Gaza area along with stationary hospitals between Kantara and Ludd, could accommodate another 15,000 casualties.[44] By August, casualty clearing stations or clearing hospitals were located at Ludd, Jaffa and Jerusalem, supported by medical stores depots at Ludd and Jerusalem.[45] However, the Australian Stationary Hospital at Moascar only had a few beds available. No. 14 Australian General Hospital on the Suez Canal was full of malaria cases from the Jordan Valley with the overflow being treated in the No. 31 British General Hospital at Abbassia, Cairo.[46]
Aircraft
On 18 September, the Royal Air Force's 5th (Corps) Wing, and the 40th (Army) Wing, both headquartered at Ramle, were deployed to the area. They were responsible for cooperation with artillery and contact patrols, tactical and strategic reconnaissance, photography, escorts, offensive patrols and bombing operations. No. 1 Squadron Australian Flying Corps (AFC), No. 111 Squadron RAF and a flight of No. 145 Squadron RAF, were based at Ramle, while No. 144 Squadron RAF were based at Junction Station.[47]
Tactical reconnaissance up to 10,000 yards (9,100 m) in advance of the XXI Corps was provided by corps squadrons. No. 113 Squadron RAF along with No. 21 Balloon Company were also assigned to XXI Corps, operating out of Sarona. No. 142 Squadron RAF (less one flight) which was assigned to the Desert Mounted Corps was also based at Sarona.[48][Note 8]
The Bristol F.2 Fighters in No. 1 Squadron (AFC) were to carry out bombing and strategic reconnaissance, as well as providing general oversight of the battlefield and reporting developments. Nos. 111 and 145 Squadrons of S.E.5.a aircraft, were to conduct day-long patrols over the main Jenin aerodrome, bombing and machine gunning all targets in the area to prevent any aircraft leaving the aerodrome. No. 144 Squadron, consisting of Airco DH.9 biplane bombers, was to bomb Afulah telephone exchange and railway station, the Messudieh Junction railway lines as well as the Ottoman Seventh Army headquarters and telephone exchange at Nablus. The newly arrived Handley–Page O-400 heavy bomber (armed with 16 112-pound (51 kg) bombs) and piloted by Australian Ross Smith was to support No. 144 Squadron's bombing of Afulah.[49][50][51][Note 9]
Deployment
On the first quarter of the front line, stretching from the Mediterranean some 15 miles (24 km) inland, 35,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry and 383 guns were preparing for the attack. The remaining three quarters of the front line across the Judean Hills to the Dead Sea, was covered by 22,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and 157 artillery guns.[52]
The XXI Corps was deployed without a corps reserve. The 60th Division was positioned on the coast with the 7th (Meerut) Division on their right, then the 75th Division with the longest frontage, was followed by the 3rd (Lahore) Division. On their right, at the eastern end of the XXI Corps and the Battle of Sharon's front line in the Judean Hills, the 54th (East Anglian) Division with the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie, held the Rafat salient.[53][Note 10]
The final deployment by XXI Corps was made during 35 minutes of darkness between the moon setting and dawn on 19 September, when each division took up a position at right angles to the direction of their advance. They were deployed across a distance of about 10 miles (16 km) in preparation for their frontal attack, leaving stretches of the front line which did not favour a frontal attack uncovered. Altogether these stretches amounted to about 5 miles (8.0 km).[34] The sections of the front line which were not part of the initial attack were to be captured as the attack developed. This would occur during a planned right flanking movement, which aimed to bring all the divisions together, when any enemy caught behind would be cut off.[53]
Desert Mounted Corps' 5th Cavalry Division which was to lead the corps advance, was concentrated north-west of Sarona, 8 miles (13 km) from the front, with the 4th Cavalry Division waiting in orange groves east of Sarona, 10 miles (16 km) from the front. The Australian Mounted Division was located near Ramle and Ludd (Lydda) 17 miles (27 km) from the front line.[54][55] These divisions and their horses were camouflaged from aircraft, in olive and orange groves, where the irrigation channels were used to water the horses.[54]
What a mass of horses & transport. Stand–to all night, lie down with our equipment on the horses being hooked–up to the wagons.
— Diary of James Calderwood Jones, Lowland Brigade RFA ammunition column, 21:00 18 September 1918[56]
All movement had been restricted to nighttime, culminating in a general move forward on the night of 18/19 September. "The night ... was fine and still."[57] The 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions were close behind the infantry, while the Australian Mounted Division moved up to Sarona. Desert Mounted Corps concentrated, with their supplies carried in massed horse–drawn transport and on endless strings of camels, clogging every road.[58][59] The light horsemen "loaded their horses with three days' food, rations an extra water bottle slung on the saddle, and extra bandolier around the horse's neck ... the 4 kilograms weight of .303 rifle ... [in] its bucket close behind the right hand."[32] "All surplus equipment had been discarded in huge dumps".[32]
Plan of attack
The Ottoman front line was to be breached quickly by massed infantry in overwhelming strength, supported by the greatest possible weight of artillery at the point in the line where the gap was to be made, while other sections of the front line would be lightly held. After the successful infantry breakthrough, the mass of cavalry would quickly move northwards, avoiding contact so as to reach the rear with as strong a force as possible. The cavalry was to enter the Esdraelon Plain, 50 miles (80 km) to the north, behind the Judean Hills, where reconnaissances had reported an absence of major defensive works.[33][60][61]
"Concentration, surprise, and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby."[62][Note 11] Success depended on
- making the infantry attack in terrain which favoured the attack and the movement of large mounted formations around the battlefield[63]
- sufficiently intense and creeping artillery barrages to cover the concentrated infantry attacks,[33][60][61]
- destroying or dominating German aircraft to stop reconnaissance which could reveal the weak sections of the front line and alerted von Sanders to the cavalry attack,[33][60][61]
- holding the territory captured by the infantry and cavalry corps which would be dependent on rations more than 50 miles (80 km) from their supply bases,[33][60][61]
- deception in the Jordan Valley that disguised the move of Desert Mounted Corps from the valley to the coast.[64][65] Rumours included a race meeting planned for the first day of battle.[66][67][Note 12]
- tactical improvements in the British artillery and infantry attack.[68]
At the tactical level Allenby's battle plans were similar, excepting for the use of tanks, to the British Fourth Army's attack on the Western Front during the Battle of Amiens which occurred six weeks earlier.
- Before both battles, the uneven deployments were kept secret by controlling aerial reconnaissances through British air superiority.[69]
- The initial attacks at Megiddo and Amiens were by infantry divisions deployed two brigades abreast, with a third in reserve.[69]
- Both battles began within ten minutes of each other at 04:20 and 04:30, when two thirds of the heavy artillery engaged in counter-battery work. At the same time a carefully coordinated short artillery barrage by the remaining one third of the available heavy artillery, "lifted and shifted,"[69] to the enemy's rear to accommodate the forward movement of the assaulting infantry. [69]
- At both battles as the infantry attacks developed, they bypassed and isolated strong points.[69]
At Amiens about 400 tanks supported the Fourth Army's advance of about 6 miles (9.7 km) when they broke three German trench lines, killing or wounding 9,000 Germans and capturing over 15,000 prisoners and 374 guns.[70][71][72] At Megiddo between 19 and 22 September, Chauvel's cavalry exploited the infantry's success, advancing 65 miles (105 km), both corps capturing "at least 25,000 prisoners and 260 guns."[73] Chauvel's Desert Mounted Corps' advance, "without the presence of a single tank was to bear a closer relationship to the Blitzkrieg than either Amiens or Cambrai".[70]
Defending force
By August 1918, the Yildirim Army Group's 40,598 front line infantrymen, were organised into twelve divisions. They were deployed on a 90 kilometres (56 mi) long front line and armed with 19,819 rifles, 273 light and 696 heavy machine guns. The high number of machine guns reflected the Ottoman Army's new tables of organization and the high machine gun component of the German Asia Corps.[74][Note 13]
The Eighth Army's 10,000 soldiers were commanded by Cevat Çobanlı. With headquarters at Tulkarm, this force was organised into two corps. The XXII Corps commanded by Colonel Refet Bey consisted of the 7th, 20th and 46th Infantry Divisions. The Asia Corps, also known as the "Left Wing Group" commanded by German Colonel von Oppen, consisted of the 16th and 19th Infantry Divisions and three German battalion groups from the German Pasha II Brigade. The Eighth Army, supported by 157 artillery guns held a line from the Mediterranean coast just north of Arsuf to Furkhah in the Judean Hills. [2][75][76][77][78] The 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division was available for reserve duty at the operational level in the Eighth Army area.[76]
Deployment
Two infantry divisions in the XXII Corps held the shortest frontages of the entire Yildirim Army Group. The 7th Division covered the first 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) of trenches from the Mediterranean coast. On their left the 20th Infantry Division covered 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) of trenches which was the doctrinal template laid down by contemporary Ottoman tactics. The 19th Infantry Division (Asia Corps) on their left, covered 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), of trenches further inland. In Eighth Army reserve, the 46th Division (XXII Corps) was located 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) behind the front line.[79][80]
These divisions facing the EEF's XXI Corps, were highly regarded veteran Ottoman Army formations. The 7th and 19th Infantry Divisions, had fought with distinction during the Gallipoli Campaign as part of Esat Pasa's III Corps.[81] The 20th Infantry Division was also a highly regarded regular army division raised and stationed in Palestine. Sometimes referred to as an 'Arab' division, it had fought in the latter phases of the Gallipoli Campaign and had served for a year in Galicia on the Eastern Front fighting Imperial Russia.[81]
The adjacent Seventh Army of 7,000 soldiers commanded by General Mustafa Kemal Pasa, was headquartered at Nablus. This army, comprising the III Corps' 1st and 11th Infantry Divisions and the XXIII Corps' 26th and 53rd Infantry Division, was supported by 111 guns. The Seventh Army held the line in the Judean Hills from Furkhah eastwards towards the Jordan Valley against the XX Corps' two divisions commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode. See Battle of Nablus.[75][76][77][78]
Other views of this force
The fighting strength of the three Ottoman Armies' (including the Fourth Army deployed east to the Jordan River) has been estimated at 26,000 infantry, 2,000 mounted troops and 372 artillery guns.[82] The nine infantry battalions of the 16th Infantry Division (Asia Corps), had effective strengths equal to a British infantry company of between 100 and 250 men, while 150 to 200 men were "assigned" to the 19th Infantry Division (Asia Corps) battalions which had had between 500 and 600 men at Beersheba.[74][Note 14]
The Ottoman armies were under strength, overstretched, "haemorrhaging" deserters, suffering greatly from strained lines of communication and were overwhelmingly outnumbered by a factor of two to one by the EEF.[78][83] Their supply system was so bad in February 1918, that the normal daily ration for the Yildirim Army Group in Palestine, consisted of 125 grains (0.29 oz) of bread and boiled beans three times a day, without oil or any other condiment.[84]
On the 15 miles (24 km) line stretching inland from the Mediterranean Sea where Allenby deployed 35,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry and 383 guns they faced "only 8,000 infantry with 130 guns".[52] The defenders were deployed in a rectangle 45 miles (72 km) in length and 12 miles (19 km) in depth, with Afulah and Beisan 45 and 60 miles (72 and 97 km) respectively, from Allenby's front line.[35][85][Note 15] A single trench system was relied on for defence.[86] "[A]t the point where Allenby struck the Turks themselves achieved a fair degree of concentration of their scant resources ... there was no secondary lines of defence nor were there any fall–back positions in the event of a retreat. The Yildirim army intended to fight it out or die."[87] An inflexible defence had been developed by the Ottoman armies, with the result that "every inch of ground had to be fought for when a more flexible system would have better suited the situation."[88]
Deception issue
Despite the lack of aerial reconnaissance, Liman von Sanders had fairly accurate knowledge on 17 September 1918, regarding the forces deployed against his Fourth, Seventh and Eighth Armies. He understood there to be five infantry divisions and a French detachment facing the Eighth Army with another two divisions facing the Seventh Army and two mounted divisions facing the Fourth Army.[89] Liman von Sanders was not surprised by the strength and location of the attack. He shifted all his available reserves and reinforcements to the west, not to the east. The strategically vital coastal plain was the most strongly defended sector of the front line. Here Liman von Sanders deployed his most experienced infantry divisions supported by heavy artillery.[81]
If Allenby's deception plan had been effective "Ottoman reserves should have been drawn to the Jordan River front; in fact, exactly the reverse happened," when Liman von Sander sent his only reinforcement, the 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division to support the Eight Army. This division began arriving near Tulkarm on 16 September and the 46th Infantry Division, in reserve near the Eighth Army's headquarters at Tulkarm moved 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) to the south–west on 17 September to a new reserve position at Et Tire, to reinforce the XXII Corps holding the coastal sector. Further "regiments on the front line were alerted that a major attack was imminent."[89]
The position of the Yildirim Army Group's heavy artillery which should have moved eastwards, if Allenby's deception plan had worked, did not change. They remained primarily in the Eighth Army sector. "[T]hree of five Ottoman Army heavy artillery batteries (the 72nd, 73rd and 75th) available in Palestine were deployed in the Eighth Army sector. The remaining two heavy artillery ... [batteries] were assigned to the adjacent Seventh Army. Significantly, no Ottoman heavy artillery ... [batteries] were positioned on the Jordan River front, although an Austrian heavy artillery battery served there."[89]
It was not surprise as a result of successful deception which caused the front line to break during the infantry attacks but a failure to have sufficient reserves available to mount effective counterattacks.[90] The loss of "situational awareness caused by the breakdown in communications,"[90] was complicated by a change in the "organisational architecture"[90] of the infantry divisions, when assault battalions were added.[91][Note 16]
Battle
Preliminary attacks
RAF aircraft attacked Deraa on 16 and 17 September when sections of the railway to the north and west of the Deraa junction were bombed. The railway south of Deraa was attacked on 17 September by a Sherifial Arab Column supported by British armoured cars and a French mountain battery. They left Qasr el 'Azraq 50 miles (80 km) east of Amman to destroying a bridge and a section of the rail line.[92] By 23 September communications between Deraa and Samakh and also north of Deraa had been restored.[93]
On the E. of Jordan, the Arabs and the Druses are up; and they have cut the Hedjaz railway, N.S., and W. of Deraa. Deraa is the junction, where the railway into Palestine leaves the Damascus–Medina line; so, Liman von Sanders has lost his only railway communications with the outer world. I really don't know what he can do; and I am beginning to think that we may have a very great success. The weather is perfect; not too hot, and very clear.
— Allenby report 15:00 19 September 1918[94]
In the Judean Hills a preliminary attack took place on 18 September when the 53rd Division, of XX Corps, attempted to capture the Samieh basin, overlooking an Ottoman road system near the front line. This area was required so that a linking road could be construction to connect the two roads. While some objectives were captured, the main position known to the British as "Nairn Ridge," remained in Ottoman hands until late the following day, 19 September. See Battle of Nablus[95]
Bombardment
The infantry will advance to the assault under an artillery barrage which will be put down at the hour at which the infantry leave their positions of deployment. This hour will be known as the 'XXI Corps Zero Hour.' There will be no preliminary bombardment.
— Force Order No. 68[96]
The bombardment began at 04:30 on 19 September by artillery, trench mortars and machine guns began the battle, firing at the German and Ottoman front line and second line trenches. In addition three siege batteries targeted opposing batteries, while the destroyers HMS Druid and HMS Forester opened fire on the trenches north of the Nahr el Faliq on the coast.[34][97] The guns were deployed one to every 50 yards (46 m) of front for the half hour long bombardment. This intensity resembled a Western Front style attack, where more heavy guns would normally be deployed with one gun placed every 10 yards (9.1 m).[98]
The artillery was organised by weight and targets in preparation for the bombardment. Heavy artillery was aimed at enemy batteries, with some guns and howitzers shelling headquarters and telephone exchanges beyond the range of the field artillery, as well as places where the infantry advance was held up.[99] One 6-inch Mark VII gun, three batteries of siege howitzers, and two 60-pounder batteries were able, without moving forward, to fire on the line Et Tire to the sea. They could be reinforced by one siege battery and one heavy battery which would be able to fire on the line Et Tire to the sea within two hours of moving forward, while one siege and one heavy battery were held in reserve.[100]
The field artillery targeted the German and Ottoman front line until the infantry arrived, when the 18–pounders and the Royal Horse Artillery,[53] 13-pounder batteries,[101] lifted to form a creeping barrage in front of the advancing troops, eventually extending up to their extreme range. This creeping barrage lifted and moved forward at a rate of 50 yards (46 m), 75 yards (69 m) and 100 yards (91 m) per minute in front of the advancing infantry. Meanwhile 4.5-inch howitzers fired on targets beyond the barrage augmented by the guns of the two destroyers firing from the Mediterranean Sea.[102]
As no attempt at systematic wire-cutting was made by the artillery, the leading soldiers either cut it by hand or carried some means of crossing it.[103] When the bombardment began, the artillery range was 4,000 yards (3,700 m) and by 08:00, it had been extended out to 15,000 yards (14,000 m).[104]
XXI Corps attacks
When the sun appeared the noise of the field guns in front of my point of observation had to a large extent stopped. The field-artillery batteries were moving forward, and that fact alone was sufficient to indicate that the whole line had been carried in one grand impetuous rush, and that the day was ours.
— W. T. Massey, the official correspondent of the London Newspapers attached to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force[105]
The intensity of the infantry battle which had begun at 04:30 varied considerably along the line.[106][107] On the coast, the 60th Division made rapid progress advancing some 7,000 yards (6,400 m) in two and a half hours, while the attached 5th Light Horse Brigade protecting their right, turned north–east towards Tulkarm.[106] By the end of the day, the 60th Division had captured Tulkarm, after a march of 17 miles (27 km).[108] On the right of the 60th Division, the 75th Division fought its way towards the Tabsor defences and Et Tire which they captured, while the 7th (Meerut) Division, on the 75th's right, advanced more northwards before turning east to the north of Et Tire, to attack the defences west of Tabsor. The 3rd (Lahore) Division, on the right of the 7th (Meerut) Division, advanced rapidly to capture the first line of defences between Bir Adas and the Hadrah road, before turning eastwards to make a flank attack on Jiljulieh and Kalkilieh defences. Meanwhile the 54th (East Anglian) Division, on the right of the 3rd (Lahore) Division, with the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie on its left, both achieved their objectives of pivoting to cover the right flank of the 60th, 75th, 7th and 3rd Divisions' advances, despite strong resistance.[109]
During the first 36 hours of the Battle of Sharon between 04:30 on 19 September and 17:00 on 20 September, the British Empire infantry continued fighting and marching forward, forcing the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills to retreat. The Eighth Ottoman Army virtually ceased to exist, except Asia Corps, which together with the Seventh Ottoman Army was still in the Judean Hills between Nablus and Beisan, having lost most of their transport.[71][110][111] The XXI Corps continued their advanced north–east to drive the enemy into and through the foothills towards Messudieh Junction, and then down the road to Jenin where they were captured by Australian light horse during the night of 20 September.[112]
By 24:00 on 20 September the front of the XXI Corps, ran just west of the 54th (East Anglian) Division at Bidya, Kh. Kefar Thilth and Azzun through Jiyus, west of the 3rd (Lahore) Division at Felamiye through the 7th (Meerut) Division at Et Taiyibe, Irta. They had taken the village of Beit Lid and controlled the cross roads at Deir Sheraf, while the 60th Division was at Tulkarm/Anebta with the 5th Light Horse Brigade across the Jenin railway south of Arrabe. The heads of these XXI Corps divisions described a virtual straight line, from the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie at Rafat northwest to Tulkarm. At this time the 75th Division came into XXI Corps reserve at Et Tire.[108][113][114][115]
The XXI Corps suffered casualties of 3,378 including 446 killed. They killed or wounded 3,000 enemy combatants, captured 12,000 prisoners, 149 guns and vast quantities of ammunition and transport.[116][117]
Ottoman front line breached
By the evening of 18 September commander Major General J. S. M. Shea's 60th Division (XXI Corps) was deployed with the 180th Brigade in front, ready to attack near the coast with the 181st Brigade in support some 16 miles (26 km) from their objective of Tulkarm. The 179th Brigade was in reserve. The recently formed 5th Light Horse Brigade attached to the 60th Division from Desert Mounted Corps, was deployed behind the 7th (Meerut) Division (XXI Corps) with orders to advance directly on Tulkarm and capture the town.[118]
By 07:20 the 180th Brigade had captured the front line defences and about 600 prisoners, one company establishing a bridgehead across the mouth of the Nahr el Faliq 5 miles (8.0 km) behind the Ottoman front line. During these operations they suffered 414 casualties. In the process they had created a gap for Desert Mounted Corps to advance northwards.[119][120][121] The infantry division then turned north-east towards Tulkarm and the Eighth Army headquarters, with the 5th Light Horse Brigade covering the right flank. When this brigade circled around to cut the Tulkarm to Nablus Road from the north, they captured over 2,000 prisoners and some guns. The 181st Brigade marching from the south, captured the town at 17:00 along with 800 prisoners.[41][106][122][123]
Attack on the Tabsor defences
The Tabsor defences consisted of the only continuous trench and redoubt system on this front. Here, the defenders had dug two or three lines of trenches and redoubts, varying in depth from 1–3 miles (1.6–4.8 km). These trenchers were centered on the Tabsor village, and stretched from Jaljulye in the east through Tabsor to the coast. Another less well developed system of defences was located 5 miles (8.0 km) behind. There was also the beginnings of a third system of defences stretching from Tulkarm across the Plain of Sharon to the Nahr Iskanderun.[124] The objectives of the 3rd (Lahore), 7th (Meerut) and 75th Divisions were to assault the first line defences and then to advance to attack the second line which ran from Jiljulieh to Kalkilieh, before advancing to capture Et Tire.[34][118]
The 75th Division captured Et Tire by 11:00 on 19 September and the 7th (Meerut) Division captured Taiyibe at 18:00. The 3rd (Lahore) Division captured Jaljulye, the railway redoubt and Qalqilye.[125] By then the Ottoman 7th and 20th Divisions had been reduced to small groups of survivors conducting a fighting retreat.[126] On 20 September the 3rd (Lahore) Division captured 'Azzun, Jinsafut and by 15:10 were north of Qary Hajja, while the 7th (Meerut) Division captured Beit Lid at 18:15 after a hard fought day-long battle.[127] On 21 September the 7th (Meerut) Division captured Masudiye Station before advancing towards Sebustiye while the 3rd (Lahore) Division advanced to Rafidia, 200 yards (180 m) west of Nablus. By that time, the Seventh and Eighth Armies were in full retreat.[128]
Attack in the Judean Hills
Beyond a wide gap of open plain which did not favour a frontal attack, and on the extreme right of the XXI Corps, the 54th (East Anglian) Division attacked northwards with the 7th Battalion, 1st Tirailleurs Algériens, 9th Battalion, 2nd Tirailleurs Algériens, 1st and 2nd Battalions Arméniens of the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie (also known as the French contingent or the French detachment) on their right. This force secured the right flank, pivoting to cover the infantry divisions advances towards Tulkarm and Tabsor.[34][109][122] All objectives were won despite these units fighting against the German Asia Corps (Eighth Army) also known as the Left Wing Group which included three German battalions from Pasha II.[76][78][129] On their right the Battle of Nablus was being fought. Here the XX Corps' 10th and 53rd Divisions were supported by Corps Troops' 1/1st Worcester Yeomanry and artillery in the XCVII Brigade RGA, the 103rd Brigade RGA, the 39th Indian Mountain Battery and the Hong Kong and Singapore Mountain Battery. Their attack began at 19:45 in the evening of 19 September after securing the Nairn Ridge, on the front line held by the Seventh Army.[130]
Desert Mounted Corps attacks
The objectives of Desert Mounted Corps were to advance to the north of the Nahr Iskanderune, to the Tulkarm/Haifa road between Qaqun and Liktera, to protect the left flank of the XXI Corps. Subsequently they were to advance across the Mount Carmel Range, to occupy the Esdrealon Plain and capture Afulah and Nazareth.[59][131] Their successful advance would give Desert Mounted Corps control of the Ottoman lines of communications.[33][123] By 10:00 on 19 September, the Desert Mounted Corps' 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions, followed by the Australian Mounted Division had advanced through the gap created by infantry attacks, and were riding north along the Plain of Sharon. (See Falls Sketch Map 31)[98][132]
Chauvel ordered the 5th Cavalry Division to cross the Mount Carmel Range by the more northerly track from Sindiane to Abu Shusheh, while the 4th Cavalry Division followed by the Australian Mounted Division, was to ride through the southerly Musmus Pass. On entering the Esdraelon Plain, the 5th Cavalry Division was ordered to attack Nazareth and capture the Commander in Chief of Yildirim Army Group, Liman von Sanders and his headquarters 70 miles (110 km) away. This division was to then clear the plain to Afulah. The 4th Cavalry Division's objective was to capture Afulah, before being further ordered to advance westwards across the Esdrelon Plain. They were to occupy Beisan on the western edge of the plain and capture the bridges across the Jordan River. The division was to hold or destroy the Jisr Mejamieh bridge 12 miles (19 km) north of Beisan, and 97 miles (156 km) from their starting point. The Australian Mounted Division's 3rd Light Horse Brigade was ordered to advance to capture Jenin on the main line of retreat from the Judean Hills, 68 miles (109 km) from their starting point, while the 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered to garrison Lejjun and carry out various escort and guard duties.[33][133][134]
This morning my cavalry occupied Afuleh, and pushed thence rapidly south–eastwards, entered Beisan this evening, thus closing to the enemy his last line of escape ... The same bombing of fugitives, on crowded roads, continues today. I think I ought to capture all the Turks' guns and the bulk of his Army. ... My losses are not heavy, in proportion to the results gained. I hope to motor out, tomorrow, to see the Cavalry in Esdraelon. The Cavalry Headquarters are at Armageddon, at the present moment.
— Letters from Allenby to Lady Allenby and Prince Feisal dated 20 September 1918[135]
The cavalry were required to garrison the captured positions, many miles from base. Here they would be dependent on rations for the men and horses of three cavalry divisions, being quickly and efficiently transported forward, along their extended supply lines.[136] Motor ambulances of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions filled with wounded, were diverted to Tulkarm before rejoining their divisions on the Esdrealon Plain, on 22 September.[137]
5th Cavalry Division
Because of the condition of the northerly pass it was decided to leave divisional artillery to follow in the morning, guarded by the 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade. So it was that only the 13th and 14th Cavalry Brigades of the 5th Cavalry Division made the night ride through the rough and narrow Shusheh Pass over the Mount Carmel Range, to enter the Esdrealon Plain on the morning of 20 September. Despite orders to the contrary, the 14th Cavalry Brigade advanced directly towards Afulah, the objective of the 4th Cavalry Division. Only the 13th Cavalry Brigade was therefore available to attack 5th Cavalry Division's objective at Nazareth. This brigade was not sufficiently strong to capture the town and the Yildirim Army Group headquarters and Liman von Sanders escaped. The next day, after the German and Ottoman garrison had retreated, Nazareth was occupied on 21 September by the 13th Cavalry Brigade.[138][139][140]
Shortly afterwards, Chauvel ordered the 5th Cavalry Division to capture Haifa and Acre 12 miles (19 km) away, to the north west.[141] As the 18th Lancers (13th Cavalry Brigade) advanced towards Acre shortly after midnight on 21/22 September they were attacked by an Ottoman battalion which was routed.[142][143] On 22 September the Haifa Annexation Expedition was stopped by a strong rearguard with machine guns and supported by effectively positioned artillery controlling the approach road to Haifa.[144] On 23 September, after a successful cavalry charge, the strong Ottoman rearguard position was captured by the Jodhpur and Mysore Imperial Service Lancer Regiments (15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade), with a squadron of 1/1st Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry (14th Cavalry Brigade) attached. Together the Jodhpur and Mysore Lancers captured 1,350 German and Ottoman prisoners.[145][146]
4th Cavalry Division
The 4th Cavalry Division following the 5th Division rode up the Plain of Sharon as far as Nahr el Mefjir. Here the division attacked and captured an entrenched Ottoman defensive position, which stretched from Jelameh, through El Mejdel and Liktera to the sea near the mouth of the Nahr el Mefjir. Afterwards, the 2nd Lancers (10th Cavalry Brigade) led by the 11th Light Armoured Motor Battery, entered the Musmus Pass and crossed the Mount Carmel Range to El Lejjun (also known as Megiddo) during the night of 19/20 September. They continued their advance in the early morning of 20 September, to capture Afulah, in the center of the Plain. Leaving the 5th Cavalry Division to garrison Afulah, the 4th Cavalry Division continued their advance eastwards to capture Beisan in the afternoon, having ridden 85 miles (137 km) in 36 hours. The 19th Lancers (12th Cavalry Brigade) advanced directly from Afulah to the north east to capture the Jisr Mejamieh bridge across the Jordan River to the north of Beisan.[133][147][148][149][150]
Australian Mounted Division
The Australian Mounted Division consisting of the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades, followed the 4th Cavalry Division through the Musmus Pass to Lejjun. Here, all three regiments of the 4th Light Horse Brigade were deployed to various guard duties. The 4th Light Horse Regiment guarded Desert Mounted Corps' headquarters, the 11th and 12th Light Horse Regiments escorted artillery and transport columns. Meanwhile the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was ordered to attack and capture Jenin to cut the Nablus to Nazareth road.[38][151][152][153]
Leaving the 8th Light Horse Regiment at Lejjun, the 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments (3rd Light Horse Brigade) approached Jenin from two different directions to charged into the town. After a two-hour-long battle the town and the main line of retreat out of the Judean Hills was captured.[38][154][155] Jenin had been the main supply and ordnance depot for the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies. Among the captures were "very large quantities of valuable stores of all sorts," workshops, three hospitals, locomotives and rolling stock at the station. With two aerodromes, Jenin had also been the main German air base. Here 24 burnt aircraft were counted among the captures.[156][157][158] By the evening of 20 September Australian Mounted Division controlled Jenin and patrolled the plain between the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions. All the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies main lines of retreat were controlled by Desert Mounted Corps except the Hedjaz railway east of the Jordan River.[151][159][160]
Forced out of his Nazareth headquarters on the morning of 20 September, Liman von Sanders drove via Tiberias to Samakh to organise the establishment of a strong rearguard at Samakh.[161][162] The 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered to capture the Samakh.[163] This town was strategically important to both sides as it controlled one of two direct roads to Damascus.[39][164] On 25 September, the 11th Light Horse Regiment supported by part of the 12th Light Horse Regiment charged in the pre-dawn across unknown ground towards the town. Meanwhile the German and Australian machine–gunners conducted a firefight. Having reached the town the light horsemen dismounted to attack the strong German and Ottoman rearguard defenders with the bayonet, rifle and sword in and around the stone built railway station buildings. After an hour-long battle when more than 100 German and Ottoman soldiers were killed, the light horse forced the garrison to surrender. They captured 350 prisoners at the station and in the town. The Australian light horse suffered 14 killed and 29 wounded.[40][165][166]
After capturing Samakh, units of the 4th Light Horse Brigade advanced along the western shore of the Sea of Galilee to jointly occupy the town of Tiberias with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, which advanced from Nazareth over the hills. These victories concluded the Battle of Sharon and the Battle of Megiddo.[167]
EEF aerial attacks
19 September
Airmen of the Palestine Brigade of the Royal Air Force (RAF) (including No. 1 Squadron, Australian Flying Corps) flew bombing raids on key communication centers, on the Seventh and Eighth Army headquarters at Nablus and Tulkarm respectively, which cut communications with the Yildirim Army Group headquarters and their commander, Liman von Sanders at Nazareth. They also bombed the main German air base at Jenin and "harassed retreating Turkish troops on the roads."[98][158][168]
At 01:15 the Handley-Page bomber piloted by the Australian Ross Smith took off carrying 16, 112-lb bombs on the way to Afulah, where the bombs damaged the railway junction and "smashed the central telephone exchange."[169] At 05:20 Bristol Fighters flying over Afulah saw labourers working to repair the railway station. At Bir el Hanuta an Ottoman infantry battalion was seen moving southward towards the front line. West of the railway line initial movements northward near Bir Ghaneim already indicated the beginnings of the retreat. At 06:00 a bombing raid by D.H.9s attacked Afulah again. Later two Bristol Fighters reported 5,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, guns and 600 transport, retiring in disorder near Et Tire. On this massed Ottoman force, 20 small bombs were dropped and over 2,000 machine gun bullets were fired from the air. At 10:00 the Nablus area appeared quiet. Shortly afterwards Jenin was bombed and on returning to base the pilot reported having seen, at 11:30 the leading cavalry division of Desert Mounted Corps, approaching Liktera. On the cavalry’s right rear at Kakon, Ottoman units were reported alarmed and beginning to move, while further south at Kulunsawe the roads were full of retreating army units.[170]
Five Bristol Fighters in bombing formation, took off at 11:40 with eight bombs each, which were dropped on the retreating columns between Et Tire and Tulkarm. They also fired hundreds of machine gun bullets, scattering the retreating force towards Kakon and Tulkarm. At this time, machine gun fire from the ground aimed at the aircraft was fairly heavy, causing a number of casualties to the air crews. At 12.30, a second formation, of three aircraft, repeated the attack, on the same retreating Ottoman column, which had reached the corner of the Tulkarm road.[171] Six aircraft took off in the afternoon; two pursuing the retreating columns north of Kakon heading towards Baka. Four aircraft found soldiers, transport, artillery, horses and camels moving from Tulkarm to Anebta. They bombed and machine gunned this column in a section of the road, where it passed the little Wadi Zeimer, through a gorge with steep hills on either side. Before the column could escape, another formation of seven Bristol Fighters attacked them, at about 17:00 west of Anebta.[172] The evening patrols reported the Ottoman Seventh Army headquarters still at Nablus, but the entire Eighth Army appeared to be in retreat, with their Tulkarm headquarters already captured. At the crossroads of the Afulah and the coast roads at Sumrah, a supply base with hospital and grain dump was in flames and its inhabitants were seen retreating into the hills.[173] During the evening and early the next morning, Ross Smith in the Handley-Page bombed the Jenin aerodrome and railway station, leaving the aerodrome looking like "a rubbish-heap".[169]
Reports reached Allenby throughout the day, describing the aircraft "spreading destruction, death, and terror behind the enemy's lines."[41] More than 11 tons of bombs were dropped, and 66,000 machine gun bullets fired from the air, particularly on the road from Tulkarm, via Anebta and through the narrow defile at Messudieh, to Nablus. The defile was twice blocked by smashed transport and dead horses, and later cleared. Those who survived abandoned their transport to seek cover in the hills.[168][113][174] Over a period of four hours of repeated aerial attacks, the road from Nablus to Beisan about 8 miles (13 km) north east of Nablus "in a narrow defile" was bombed by EEF aircraft. The area became covered with the wreckage of 90 guns, 50 motor lorries and more than 1,000 other vehicles and unknown casualties.[161]
The next day Allenby saw the results of the aerial attacks for himself:
I was at Tulkaram today, and went along the Nablus road. It is strewn with broken lorries, wagons, dead Turks, horses and oxen; mostly killed and smashed by our bombing aeroplanes. The same bombing of fugitives, on crowded roads, continues today. I think I ought to capture all the Turks' guns and the bulk of his Army.
— Allenby letter to Lady Allenby 20 September 1918[175]
Meanwhile early in the day, in the area to the east of the Jordan River guarded by the Ottoman Fourth Army, two Bristol Fighters reporting all Ottoman camps in the area were quiet. After attacking a mass of cavalry at Ain es Sir they returned to base via flying over the Wadi Fara road. Here they dropped their remaining bombs on a column of 50 motor lorries moving along the road, on the western side of the Jordan River, towards the Jisr ed Damieh bridge. A direct hit on one of the lorries blocked the road and in the late afternoon another two Bristol Fighters continued this attack.[171]
20-23 September
Early morning reconnaissance flights on 20 September reported the effects of the previous day's bombing, in particular between Anebta and Deir Sheraf, where all Ottoman camps were either burnt or empty. From this region northwards, Ottoman troops were seen retreating along the road and railway towards Jenin. At Messudie railway station two trains were being loaded and from Burka northwards the road was full of carts, camels and soldiers. Afulah was a blackened wreck after 24 hours of bombing. Here four trains of carriages without engines were in the station and at the aerodrome four aircraft being prepared for flight were all bombed.[176]
A second dawn patrol reported a column of about 200 vehicles spread along 5 miles (8.0 km) of the Wady el Fara road moving from Nablus in the direction of the Jisr ed Damieh bridge. This column was bombed by Bristol Fighters, three making "direct hits" on transport, which blocked the road. Another five bombs were dropped on this target as well as machine gun fire which "created mayhem."[177] Aerial attacks began at 09:00 on the Samaria to Afulah road, when five aircraft dropped 40 bombs and fired 4,000 machine gun bullets at several retreating columns. Between Burka and Jenin, nearly every bomb fell among retreating German and Ottoman soldiers. These bombs fell on "congested bodies of troops ... [who] suffered terrible casualties". When they ran out of ammunition, the aircraft returned for supplies before repeating their bombing and machine gunning near Arrabe. The survivors would be captured later that night at Jenin, by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade.[178] The last reconnaissance of the day reported fires burning at Nablus and at the Ottoman army dumps at Balata, indicating the whole Ottoman line from El Lubban to the Jordan, was in retreat.[179]
On 21 September, an early morning patrol of the upper Wady el Fara road from Nablus to Jisr ed Damieh, reported a mass of enemy transport, moving along a section of the old Roman road which formed a big 'S'. This stretch of the road from Ain Shibleh to the Jordan River passed along the Jordan cliffs. Here there was a precipice on one side and steep hills on the other. The airmen counted about 600 horse drawn wagons and guns, between Balata and Khurbet Ferweh and beyond a further 200 wagons, and from Ain Shibleh a mass of cavalry and transport, heading northeast. These formations suffered five direct bomb hits and 600 machine gun rounds, which marked the beginnings of another "massacre". The aerial bombardment which had commenced at 06:30 with the arrival of the first of several Australian and British air raids was continued during the day. The Australian and British aircraft dropped six tons of bombs and fired 44,000 machine gun rounds. Two days later 87 guns, 55 motor lorries, 4 motor cars, 75 carts, 837 wagons, water carts and field kitchens representing most, if not all of the Seventh Army's transport, were found destroyed and abandoned.[180]
On 22 and 23 September small groups of retreating Yildirim Army Group soldiers were attacked by aircraft on the Shibleh to Beisan road near the Jordan River. Shortly afterwards a column of several thousand were seen marching back under a white flag along the Wady el Fara road.[181] Three German Pfalz scout aircraft and a number of D.F.W. two–seater aircraft from Deraa aerodrome were attacked by three Bristol Fighters over Um es Surab. During the aerial fight a German two–seater was shot down near Mafrak, another aircraft was forced to land near the railway and an Ottoman outpost, while the third aircraft was chased back to Deraa.[182] An aerial reconnaissance reported a gap of about 20 miles (32 km) of unguarded Jordan River crossings, north from the Jisr ed Damieh bridge. This bridge had been captured on the morning of 22 September by Chaytor's Force before it turned east to capture Es Salt and fight the Second Battle of Amman. Chauvel ordered Barrow's 4th Cavalry Division to advance southwards along the banks of the Jordan River to cut this line of retreat, and complete the encirclement of what remained of the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills.[183] Deraa aerodrome was attacked in the early morning of 23 September, by aircraft flying from Ramle. It was attacked again that night by the Handley-Page, which ended the enemy's use of that aerodrome.[184]
Yildirim Army Group reactions
19 September
By 05:45 telephone communication to Ottoman front line units had been cut. Five minutes later all German and Ottoman reserves had been ordered forward.[107] All telephone, telegraph and wireless communications from the Eighth Army headquarters at Tulkarm were cut at 07:00. By 09:00 Seventh Army communications with Yildirim Army Group at Nazareth had also been cut. At that hour it was via the Asia Corps at 'Azzun that Liman von Sanders learned from Seventh Army headquarters, that the trench lines on the coastal sector had been breached and cavalry were advancing northwards.[185][Note 17] Although the Eighth Army headquarters survived the onslaught, this army was already in disorder having lost contact with the 7th and 19th Divisions (XXII Corps). Liman von Sanders ordered the 46th Infantry Division (Eighth Army reserve) forward towards Et Tire.[132] Consisting of two regiments, it was ordered forward at 08:00 with one regiment sent to reinforce the 20th Division's position at Kabak Tepe while the second regiment went to fortify Sehpali Tepe, near XXII Corps headquarters.[186] However, by 10:00 the weight of Allenby's infantry and artillery attack had forced the XXII Corps to retreat. Yildirim Army Group had no combat formations in position to stop the cavalry advance up the coast.[187]
The Asia Corps' 47th and 48th Infantry Regiments (16th Division) held the front line in the Judean Hills. They had expected an attack during the night of 18/19 September and were supported by a strong local reserve. This reserve force consisted of the 1st Battalion 125th Infantry Regiment, part of the 48th Regiment's machine gun company, and divisional assault, engineer, and cavalry companies. Along with the 19th Division, they were attacked at 04:50 by the 54th (East Anglian) Division and the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie , a brigade–sized force of French colonial and Armenian troops.[188] Liman von Sanders ordered the remainder of the Asia Corps commanded by Colonel von Oppen to attack westwards towards Tulkarm to reinforce the XXII Corps. Von Oppen had already ordered the German 701st Battalion and a German cavalry squadron to move through Jiyus to Felamiye, with a reserve battalion of the Ottoman 72nd Regiment and the 19th Divisional Cavalry Squadron, taking up a position east of Qalqilye.[185] At 10:00, the 1st Battalion 125th Infantry Regiment and the cavalry troop reinforced the line to the north of 'Azzun Ibn 'Atme. These reinforcements, along with the 46th Division at Et Tire, caused serious difficulties for the British and Indian XXI Corps infantry. Von Oppen dispatched a German lieutenant with clerks, orderlies and transport personnel armed with some machine guns, to Kh. Kefar Thilth to rally the retreating 19th Division, which had been near Jaljulye.[185][188] The 16th Division continued to maintained its positions, holding the front line but by 17:00 all reserves had been committed. Not long afterwards they were forced to retreat to conform with the XXII Corps withdrawals on its right flank. Von Oppen withdrew his baggage, guns and headquarters to El Funduq and at 18:30, having previously issued orders, withdrew at dusk. He withdrew to a line stretching from 2 miles (3.2 km) west of 'Azzun, through Kh Kefar Thilth, along the heights south of the Wadi Qana through Deir Estia, to rendezvous with the Seventh Army at Kefar Haris.[185][188]
The whole of the Ottoman Eighth Army's right flank forces holding the front line defences had rapidly collapsed. By the end of the day only remnant survivors were withdrawing across the coastal plain, along the main line of retreat in the direction of Tulkarm and Messudieh Junction. The road along which they retreated was subjected to continuous aerial attacks. During the afternoon of 19 September RAF aerial bombing blocked the road, causing many casualties.[189][114]
Liman von Sanders ordered the Seventh Army commander Mustafa Kemal to withdraw northwards. He was ordered to send a battalion of the 110th Regiment at Nablus and any other spare troops, to stop the British advance to the Tulkarm to Nablus road, at an easily defended narrow, steep sided pass near 'Anebta.[132][185] At 12:30 Liman von Sanders had taken steps to defend the Musmus Pass entry onto the Esdrealon Plain. He ordered the 13th Depot Regiment based at Nazareth and the military police; a total of six companies and 12 machine guns to "occupy the mouth of the Musmus Pass at El Lajjun."[185] Meanwhile the Ottoman Fourth Army to the east of the Jordan River, remained in position holding their ground on the left flank.[132]
20 September
Liman von Sanders was forced to withdraw from Nazareth in the early morning when the 5th Cavalry Division unsuccessfully attacked the town.[190] His journey took him to Tiberias and Samakh, where he reestablished contact with his three armies. He continued on to Deraa on the morning of 21 September, which he found to be "fairly secure" and placed its commandant, Major Willmer in temporary command of the whole front from Deraa to Samakh. While there, Liman von Sanders received a report from the Fourth Army, which he ordered to withdraw to the Yarmuk, Irbid, Deraa line, without waiting for the southern Hedjaz troops. During the evening Liman von Sanders met with the leaders of several thousand Druse who agreed to remain neutral.[161][162][191] Before continuing his journey towards Damascus Liman von Sanders ordered the establishment of a rearguard line running from Deraa down the Yarmuk River Valley, across the Jordan River and west to Samakh, around the shore of the Sea of Galilee to Tiberias and northwards to Lake Huleh. If this line, across the two main roads and railway lines to Damascus could be held, time could be gained for the consolidation of the retreating columns into a strong defence of Damascus.[39][192][193]
After the loss of 'Azzun at 11:45 on 20 September, and as a consequence of the British Indian Army infantry advances through 'Anebta, von Oppen, commander of Asia Corps (Eighth Army), received orders from the Eighth Army headquarters then at Masudiye Station. Asia Corps was "to fall back to a line from Beit Lid, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) west north west of Dier Sheraf, to Ferata, 4.5 miles (7.2 km) south south west of Deir Sheraf". The objective of this move was to cover the junction of the roads from Tulkarm and El Funduq with the road to Damascus for as long as possible. The order also covered the continuation of the retreat along the Damascus road to 2.5 miles (4.0 km) north of Masudiye Station.[194] Von Oppen ordered the 16th and 19th Divisions (Asia Corps) to take up a rearguard position either side of the El Funduq to Deir Sheraf road. Asia Corps bivouaced near Balata. During the night of 20/21 von Oppen was ordered to send his German troops back to Deir Sheraf to cover the Seventh Army retreat, but he refused.[194] The 16th Division conducted a fighting retreat on 20 and 21 September, during which most of the artillery was lost.[126]
Remnants of the XXII Corps (Eighth Army) which had retreated north along the main Damascus road during 20 September, were captured that night by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Jenin.[195]
21 September
During the night the Asia Corps' 16th and 19th Divisions, following the direct orders of Liman von Sanders, had moved to the west of Nablus. Here von Oppen got in contact with them during the morning of 21 September. At that time the remains of the 702nd and 703rd Battalions were reformed into one battalion, supported by a rifle company, a machine gun company and a trench mortar detachment. The 701st Battalion with its machine gun company of six guns, a troop of cavalry, an infantry-artillery platoon with two mountain guns or howitzers and a trench mortar section with four mortars and a cavalry squadron, remained intact.[196]
The Asia Corps was to continue its withdrawal down the Wadi el Fara road towards the Jordan River, but was forced to turn north-east at 'Ain Shible, south east of Tammun, towards Beisan.[194] At 10:00 von Oppen was informed that the EEF was closing in on Nablus and the Wadi el Fara road was blocked. He decided to retreat via Beit Dejan 7 miles (11 km) east southeast of Nablus to the Jordan River at Jisr ed Damieh, but found this route also cut. He then ordered a retreat via Mount Ebal, leaving behind all wheeled transport, including guns and baggage. During this withdrawal, the column suffered casualties from artillery fire. The 701st and the combined 702nd and 703rd Battalions bivouaced that night at Tammun with the 16th and 19th Divisions at Tubas.[197] Von Oppen with the 700 German and 1,300 Ottoman soldiers of the 16th and 19th Divisions, was retreating northwards towards Beisan when he learned it had fallen. He decided to advance during the night of 22 September to Samakh where he correctly guessed Liman von Sanders would order a rearguard action. However, Jevad, (also known as Jevat Pasa and Cevat Pasa) the commander of the Eighth Army ordered him to cross the Jordan River.[198][Note 18] The Eighth Army headquarters at Nablus was abandoned at 15:00 on 21 September, when Jevad join the Seventh Army headquarters, accompanied by his chief of staff and some staff officers. This move signaled the end of the Ottoman Eighth Army as the surviving remnants were all in retreat and threatened with encirclement, including the Asia Corps. The 20th and 21st Regiments existed only until the afternoon.[199]
Meanwhile the bulk of the Seventh Army was retreating down the Wadi el Fara road, towards the Jordan River. Here it was heavily bombed and strafed by machine guns, from aircraft. During these aerial attacks the Seventh Army guns and transport were destroyed, leaving the road blocked. The survivors were forced to turn north at 'Ain Shible in order to continue their retreat towards Beisan. Having got through before the road was blocked, the 53rd Division continued down the Wadi el Fara road, but was attacked and captured by Chaytor's Force on 22 September, during their attack on the Jisr ed Damieh bridge.[195]
22–24 September
Between 21 and 23 September, the 1st and 11th Divisions III Corps (Seventh Army) fought rearguard actions from Tubas to the Jordan River, which delayed the British cavalry encirclement, and covered the retreat of the remaining units of the Ottoman Seventh Army across the Jordan River.[132] The Seventh Army lost 1,500 prisoners, captured by the XX Corps cavalry on 23 and 24 September during the Battle of Nablus.[195]
By 22 September, the 16th Infantry Division (Asia Corps) had been reduced to less than 280 officers and men and two days later, on 24 September they were relying on machine guns for defence, when "enemy horse units [were] everywhere." Their divisional headquarters joined the surviving headquarters elements of the 19th Division only to be attacked and overrun by Indian cavalry.[126] However, the 16th Division's 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the 125th Infantry Regiment with their combined assault/engineers company survived to fight a delaying action to Damascus. They were captured there on 1 October 1918.[126]
Aftermath
The King congratulated Allenby:
It is with feelings of pride and admiration that we at home have received the news of the ably conceived and brilliantly carried out operations in which the British Indian and Allied forces under your command with the support of the Royal Navy have gained a complete victory over the enemy ...
— King Georve V telegram to Allenby 23 September[200]
In a congratulatory telegram from the Chief of the General Staff at the War Office on 23 September, Allenby had been asked to consider a "cavalry raid on Aleppo."[201] Sir Henry Wilson the then Chief of the General Staff went on to describe the effect such an advance would have on the campaign in the Caucasus and in North West Persia, and the moral and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire. He assured Allenby that the War Office would accept the risks involved in such a venture.[202] At this early stage in operations, Allenby's focus remained on the battle of Megiddo then unfolding, and on the pursuit to Damascus by Desert Mounted Corps which would be the next step.[203]
The 7th Brigade of the 3rd (Lahore) Division was detached to the Desert Mounted Corps to garrison the areas occupied by the mounted corps. This infantry brigade marched via Jenin to Nazareth and on to Samakh, arriving there on 28 September, while Desert Mounted Corps was in pursuit of the remnants Yildirim Army Group towards Damascus.[204] By 29 September, the 7th (Meerut) Division was concentrated at Haifa with the XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment at Acre in preparation for their march to Beirut and on to Tripoli during the Pursuit to Haritan.[205]
Ottoman and German prisoners
Between 19 and 21 September 15,000 prisoners had been captured.[206] Some of these were guarded by the 7th Brigade, 3rd (Lahore) Division which had been detached to Desert Mounted Corps to garrison the Esdrealon Plain. They took over responsibility for a compound of 300 prisoners from Australian light horsemen. Shortly after another 200 Germans arrived followed by large numbers of Turks, Armenian, Arabs, Jews and Bedouins prisoners.[207][208] During the night of 26/27 September a further 3,500 prisoners were added into the compound and "packed in shoulder to shoulder. All sanitary discipline had vanished and dysenteric excrement covered every open space." Three lorries arrived with rations of army biscuits, bully beef and onions for the prisoners, and after they had all been fed, an escort arrived to move them.[209]
Spanish Flu
With the rapid advance, "disorganization and improvisation in the medical service are inevitable," with clearing stations lacking "the most elementary comforts." These problems were multiplied by the huge numbers of prisoners, among whom many became ill with Spanish Flu.[210] In a hospital located in a convent in Haifa about 3,000 sick were treated. "It is the survival of the fittest, if one is able to be up & about there is a chance of getting something to eat, but if stretcher case, you get no attention whatever, the staff can't cope with the numbers."[211]
There are too many sick to go under the scanty canvas [in a field ambulance]. The majority are Turkish prisoners. You will see them herded under tarpaulins beyond the marquees; and where no tarpaulins are available, they lie sick in the sun. Sandfly fever, relapsing fever, influenza and malaria (malignant and benign), dysentery, have hit the spent Turkish Army hard. So have they ours; but not to the same degree. The Turks are “dying like flies”, as they say. The more acute cases are put in limbers, G.S. wagons, lorries, and pushed down. A cot full of comatose Turks, sick unto death, lumbering along in the dust, is a common sight. Even our own sick are evacuated in any vehicle that passes the station. There are not motor ambulances for all, and there are no ambulance trains on this route. An orderly in the road stops all down-passing vehicles and demands if they can carry sick. Of wounded there are almost none. Medical officers are overworked. They are exhausted not only by labour but by the intolerable heat and the enervating air of the lower road-stations.
— Lieutenant Dinning during his road journey through the region in September 1918[212]
With a temperature of 103 °F (39 °C), Warrant Officer Patrick M. Hamilton, serving with the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance, became one of the earlier cases of Spanish flu, being reported sick on 20 September. At 18:00 on 21 September he was evacuated from Jenin, sitting up in one of the returning supply lorries back to the Australian Receiving Station at Tulkarm. He became very sick the next day "with pains all over, especially in the back" and became a stretcher case just before the receiving station was taken over by the 4th British Cavalry Divisional Receiving Station, where he remained until 24 September.[213] From Tulkarm he was evacuated to the 15th British Casualty Clearing Station at Wilhelma in a motor ambulance, then by train to the 26th British Casualty Clearing Station at Ludd, before arriving by troop train back at the 47th Stationary Hospital at Gaza on 27 September, seven days after falling ill. Here he slowly recovered, before being evacuated once more, by train on 1 October back across the Sinai 120 miles (190 km), to be admitted to the 24th British Stationary Hospital at Kantara, where he recovered. He rejoined the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance after the end of the war, arriving by boat at Tripoli in the middle of November 1918.[214]
Notes
- ^ The 75th Division had received the first Indian battalions in June 1917. ["75th Division". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 30 August 2012.] The division's 232nd and 233rd Brigades were formed in April and May 1917 from four British battalions. The 234th Brigade only had two British battalions until two Indian battalions joined in July and September 1917, when it was formed. [75th Division, The Long Long Trail] Other sources claim on establishment the 75th Division was made up of Territorial and Indian battalions. [Falls 1930 Vol. 1 p. 319]
- ^ The 2/151st Indian Infantry, was one such battalion formed from one company each from the 56th Punjabi Rifles, the 51st, 52nd and 53rd Sikhs. One regiment, the 101st Grenadiers, formed a second battalion by dividing itself into two with two experienced and two new companies in each battalion. [Roy 2011, p. 174]
- ^ Allenby had been informed after the capture of Jerusalem in December 1917 that "the 7th Indian Division would arrive from Mesopotamia" and on 1 April it relieved the 52nd (Lowland) Division which sailed for France. The "3rd Indian Division" arrived from Mesopotamia on 14 April 1918. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 293, 350, 413]
- ^ See Indian Army during World War I for an image of Indian lancers, and for an illustration of a fully armed lancer, with sword, lance, rifle, bayonet and gas mask, see Chappell's "Men at Arms Series British Cavalry Equipment 1800–1941" illustration G 1.
- ^ Abu Shushe should not be confused with Abu Shushe located between Junction Station and the Jerusalem to Jaffa Road. See Battle of Mughar Ridge
- ^ Desert Mounted Corps's Anzac Mounted Division had been detached to Chaytor's Force.[Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 667]
- ^ The Australian Mounted Division's 5th Light Horse Brigade was detached to the 60th Division during the first few days of battle. [Carver 2003 p. 232]
- ^ See Battle of Nablus (1918) for operations of XX Corps and Chaytor's Force.
- ^ Ross Smith was apparently no relation to Charles Kingsford Smith, with whom he and his brother Keith, flew after the war. [1]
- ^ Mention is made of four British infantry brigades in reserve. [Erickson 2007 pp. 146, 148]
- ^ The issue of whether or not it was Allenby's plan has been raised in the literature. [Erickson 2007 pp. 141–2] According to Chauvel, Allenby had already decided on his plan before the Second Transjordan attack in April/May which had confirmed the Ottoman determination to defend the Deraa railway junction and the difficulties for mounted operations in the area. [Hill 1978 p. 161]
- ^ The success of Allenby's "deception operations has never been seriously questioned and the assumption that it was a major contribution to his victory detracts from the tactical accomplishments of Allenby's XXI Corps." [Erickson 2007 pp. 144–5]
- ^ The only available German and Ottoman sources to the British official historian were Liman von Sanders' memoir and the Asia Corps' war diary. Ottoman army and corps records seem to have disappeared during their retreat. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 494–5
- ^ These low numbers of soldiers in Asia Corps units, reflect the high number of machine guns in Asia Corps. [Erickson 2007 p. 132]
- ^ The front has also been described as 75 miles (121 km) and 90 kilometres (56 mi) long, probably included the Jordan Valley. [Bruce 2002 p. 208] [Erickson 2007 p. 142]
- ^ The 3rd and 46th Assault Companies trained in German-style stormtrooper tactics had helped defeat the EEF at the First Battle of Amman during the First Transjordan attack on Amman. The 24th Division's 24th Assault Company (Seventh Army) had helped push the EEF back from Es Salt during the Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt. [Erickson 2007 pp. 133–5]
- ^ "The only useful sources of information regarding events on the Turkish side on the 19th September are the memoirs of von Sanders, and the war diary of the Asia Corps ... [other] records seem to have disappeared in the subsequent retreat." [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 494–5]
- ^ Liman von Sanders was very critical of Jevad's intervention which considerably weakened the Samakh position, but von Oppen would have had to break through the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Jenin and the 4th Cavalry Division at Beisan to get to Samakh. [Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 546]
Citations
- ^ Kinloch 2007 p. 303
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 674
- ^ Bruce 2002 pp. 207–8
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 190
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 207
- ^ Allenby letter to Wilson 24 July 1918 in Hughes 2004 pp. 168–9
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 411–3
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 412–3
- ^ Wavell 1968 p. 183
- ^ a b Cutlack 1941 p. 121
- ^ Gullett 1941 pp. 653–4
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 662–5, 668–671
- ^ "53rd (Welsh) Division". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
- ^ Roy 2011, pp.170–171
- ^ a b c Roy 2011, p. 174
- ^ Roy 2011, p. 170
- ^ Erickson, p. 126
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 182
- ^ Woodward 2006, p. 170
- ^ Perrett, pp.24–26
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 413, 417
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 670–1
- ^ Sumner 2001, p. 9
- ^ Wavell 1968, p. 183
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 661–2, 667–8
- ^ Wavell 1968, p. 183
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 1 pp. 15, 22, Vol. 2 pp. 661–2, 667–8
- ^ a b c d Perrett 1999, p.23
- ^ a b c DiMarco 2008 p. 328
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 411, 414–5, 661, 667–8
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 205
- ^ a b c Jones 1987 p. 148
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gullett 1919 pp. 25–6
- ^ a b c d e Wavell 1968 p. 205
- ^ a b c d e Keogh 1955 pp. 243–4
- ^ Keogh 1955 p. 250
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 672
- ^ a b c DiMarco 2008 pp. 330–1
- ^ a b c Bruce 2002 p. 240
- ^ a b Hill 1978 p. 172
- ^ a b c Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 487
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 668
- ^ Hanafin, James. "Order of Battle of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, September 1918" (PDF). orbat.com. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
- ^ Downes 1941 p. 764
- ^ Downes 1941 p. 696
- ^ Downes 1941 p. 764
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 460–1
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 460
- ^ Cutlack 1941 pp. 151–2
- ^ Carver 2003 pp. 225, 232
- ^ Maunsell 1926 p. 213
- ^ a b Wavell 1968 p. 203
- ^ a b c Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 470
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 463
- ^ Paget 1994 p. 257
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 193
- ^ Baly 2003 p. 243
- ^ Gullett 1919 p. 28
- ^ a b Wavell 1968 p. 208
- ^ a b c d Wavell 1968 pp. 197–8
- ^ a b c d Powles 1922 p. 233
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 191
- ^ Erickson 2001 p. 200
- ^ Powles 1922 pp. 234–5
- ^ Hamilton 1996 pp. 135–6
- ^ Paget 1994 Vol. 5 pp. 255–7
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 192
- ^ Erickson 2001 p. 200
- ^ a b c d e Erickson 2007 p. 150
- ^ a b Hill 1978 p. 161
- ^ a b Erickson 2007 pp. 150–1
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 190–1
- ^ Allenby 22 September 1918 in Hughes 2004 pp. 181–3
- ^ a b Erickson 2007 p. 132
- ^ a b Carver 2003 p. 231
- ^ a b c d Erickson 2001 p. 196
- ^ a b Keogh 1955 pp. 241–2
- ^ a b c d Wavell 1968 p. 195
- ^ Bou 2009 p. 192
- ^ Erickson 2007 pp. 142–3
- ^ a b c Erickson 2007 p. 146
- ^ Keogh 1955 p. 242
- ^ Bou 2009 pp. 192–3 quoting Erickson 2001 pp. 195,198
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 133
- ^ Blenkinsop 1925 p. 236
- ^ Gullett 1919 p. 31
- ^ Erickson 2007 p. 143
- ^ Bou 2009 p. 192
- ^ a b c Erickson 2007 p. 145
- ^ a b c Erickson 2007 p. 153
- ^ Erickson 2007 pp. 152–3
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 466
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 566
- ^ in Hughes 2004 p. 178
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 471–2, 488–491
- ^ in Woodward 2003 p. 193
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 485
- ^ a b c Bou 2009 p. 194
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 470–1
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 456
- ^ Paget 1994, p.221
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 470–1, 480–1, 485
- ^ Wavell 1968 p. 206
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 224
- ^ Massey 1920 p. 130
- ^ a b c Bruce 2002 p. 225
- ^ a b Erickson 2001 p. 198
- ^ a b Bruce 2002 p. 227
- ^ a b Bruce 2002 pp. 224–5
- ^ Blenkinsop 1925 p. 241
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp 519–521, 526–7, 530–2
- ^ Wavell 1968 pp. 198–9
- ^ a b Keogh 1955 p. 248
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 488
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 157
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 509–10
- ^ Erickson 2007 pp. 151–2
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 484
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 485–6
- ^ Wavell 1968 p. 207
- ^ Carver 2003 p. 233
- ^ a b Keogh 1955 p. 247
- ^ a b Powles 1922 p. 239
- ^ Hill 1978 p. 165
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 476, 482–4, 514
- ^ a b c d Erickson 2007 p. 151
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 505–8
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 509
- ^ Keogh 1955 pp. 241–2, 247
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 487–94, 668–9
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 449
- ^ a b c d e Erickson 2001 p. 199
- ^ a b Preston 1921 pp. 200–1
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 529
- ^ in Hughes 2004 pp. 179, 180
- ^ Gullett 1919 p. 25–6
- ^ Downes 1938 p. 719
- ^ Carver 2003 p. 232
- ^ Bruce 2002 pp. 228–9
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 523
- ^ DiMarco 2008 p. 332
- ^ Wavell 1968 pp. 214–5
- ^ Hill 1978 p. 171
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 234
- ^ DiMarco 2008 p. 332
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 235
- ^ Bruce 2002 pp. 227–8
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 514–5, 518, 521
- ^ Wavell 1968 pp. 199, 208–9
- ^ Carver 2003 p. 235
- ^ a b Bruce 2002 p. 231
- ^ Carver 2003 p. 237
- ^ Paget 1994 Vol. 4 p. 289
- ^ Paget 1994 Vol. 4 pp. 289–90
- ^ Australian Mounted Division War Diary AWM4-1-58-15; 15.35, 17:30 20 September
- ^ Preston 1921 pp. 214–5
- ^ Gullett 1919 pp. 10–11
- ^ a b Woodward 2006 p. 196
- ^ Maunsell 1926 p. 221
- ^ Gullett 1941 p. 729
- ^ a b c Keogh 1955 p. 251
- ^ a b Wavell 1968 p. 223
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 542
- ^ Grainger 2006 p. 235
- ^ Bou 2009 pp. 194–5
- ^ Bruce 2002 pp. 240–1
- ^ Carver 2003 p. 240–1
- ^ a b Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 487–8
- ^ a b Cutlack 1941 pp. 152, 155
- ^ Cutlack 1941 pp. 152–3
- ^ a b Cutlack 1941 p. 153
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 154
- ^ Cutlack 1941 pp. 154–5
- ^ Powles 1922 pp. 240–1
- ^ Hughes 2004 p. 179
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 155
- ^ Cutlack 1941 pp. 155–6
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 156
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 158
- ^ Cutlack 1941 pp. 159, 161
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 161
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 164
- ^ Hill 1978 pp. 171–2
- ^ Cutlack 1941 p. 164–5
- ^ a b c d e f Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 495
- ^ Erickson 2007 pp. 153–4
- ^ Erickson 2001 p. 199, 2007 p. 149
- ^ a b c Erickson 2007 p. 149
- ^ Bruce 2002 p. 226
- ^ Wavell 1968 p. 222
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 511, 545
- ^ Hill 1978 p. 172
- ^ Wavell 1968 p. 222
- ^ a b c Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 511
- ^ a b c Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 512
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 511–2, 675
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 511–2
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 546
- ^ Erickson 2001 p. 199, 2007 p. 151
- ^ in Hughes 2004 pp. 184–5
- ^ Wilson CIGS telegram to Allenby sent on 23 September in Hughes 2004 p. 185
- ^ Wilson CIGS telegram to Allenby sent on 23 September in Hughes 2004 p. 185
- ^ Allenby telegram to Wilson sent on 25 September in Hughes 2004 p. 183
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 561
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 563, 597
- ^ Jones 1987 p. 152
- ^ Woodward 2006 p. 199
- ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 561
- ^ Blake O'Sullivan, 1st Connaught Rangers, 7th Brigade, 3rd (Lahore) Division in Woodward 2006 pp. 199–200
- ^ Dinning 1920 p. 78
- ^ J.C. Jones diary in Woodward 2006 pp. 204–5
- ^ Dinning 1920 pp. 78–9
- ^ Hamilton 1996 pp.142–3
- ^ Hamilton 1996 pp. 143–5
References
- "Australian Mounted Division General Staff War Diary". First World War Diaries AWM4, 1-58-15. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. September 1918.
- Baly, Lindsay (2003). Horseman, Pass By: The Australian Light Horse in World War I. East Roseville, Sydney: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 223425266.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - History of the Great War Based on Official Documents Veterinary Services. London: H.M. Stationers. 1925. OCLC 460717714.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|editors=ignored (|editor=suggested) (help) - Bou, Jean (2009/2010). A History of Australia's Mounted Arm. Australian Army History. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521197083.
{{cite book}}: Check date values in:|year=(help); Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - Bruce, Anthony (2002). The Last Crusade: The Palestine Campaign in the First World War. London: John Murray Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7195-5432-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Carver, Michael, Field Marshal Lord (2003). The National Army Museum Book of The Turkish Front 1914–1918: The Campaigns at Gallipoli, in Mesopotamia and in Palestine. London: Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-283-07347-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - F. M. Cutlack (1941). "The Australian Flying Corps in the Western and Eastern Theatres of War, 1914–1918". Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 Volume VIII (11th ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial.
- DiMarco, Louis A. (2008). War Horse A History of the Military Horse and Rider. Yardley Pa: Westholme Publishing. OCLC 226378925.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Dinning, Hector W. (1920). Nile to Aleppo. New York: MacMillan. OCLC 2093206.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - R. M. Downes (1938). "The Campaign in Sinai and Palestine". Gallipoli, Palestine and New Guinea of Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services, 1914–1918 Part II in Volume 1 (2nd ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|series author=ignored (help) - Erickson, Edward J. (2001). Ordered to Die A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War: Forward by General Hüseyiln Kivrikoglu. No. 201 Contributions in Military Studies. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Press. OCLC 43481698.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Erickson, Edward J. (2007). Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study. No. 26 of Cass series: military history and policy. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-96456-9.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|editors=ignored (|editor=suggested) (help) - Falls, Cyril (1930). Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. 2 Part II. London: HM Stationary Office. OCLC 256950972.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Great Britain, Army, Egyptian Expeditionary Force (1918). Handbook on Northern Palestine and Southern Syria (1st provisional 9 April ed.). Cairo: Government Press. OCLC 23101324.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Grainger, John D. (2006). The Battle for Palestine, 1917. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 9781843832638.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Australia in Palestine. Sydney: Angus & Robertson Ltd. 1919. OCLC 224023558.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|editors=ignored (|editor=suggested) (help) - H. Gullett (1941). "The Australian Imperial Force in Sinai and Palestine, 1914–1918". Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 Volume VII (10th ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial.
- Hamilton, Patrick M. (1996). Riders of Destiny The 4th Australian Light Horse Field Ambulance 1917–18: An Autobiography and History. Gardenvale, Melbourne: Mostly Unsung Military History. ISBN 978-1-876179-01-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hill, A. J. (1978). Chauvel of the Light Horse A Biography of General Sir Harry Chauvel, GCMG, KCB. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. OCLC 5003626.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hughes, Matthew, ed. (2004). Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919. Army Records Society. Vol. 22. Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0750938412 9780750938419.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: length (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|month=(help); Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jones, Ian (1987). The Australian Light Horse. Australians at War. Australia: Time-Life Books. OCLC 18459444.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Keogh, E. G. (1955). Suez to Aleppo. Melbourne: Directorate of Military Training by Wilkie & Co. OCLC 220029983.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Kinloch, Terry (2007). Devils on Horses in the Words of the Anzacs in the Middle East,1916–19. Auckland: Exisle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-908988-94-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Maunsell, E. B. (1926). Prince of Wales’ Own, the Seinde Horse, 1839–1922. Regimental Committee. OCLC 221077029.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Paget, G.C.H.V Marquess of Anglesey (1994). Egypt, Palestine and Syria 1914 to 1919. A History of the British Cavalry 1816–1919 Volume 5. London: Leo Cooper. ISBN 978-0-85052-395-9.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Perrett, Bryan (1999). Megiddo 1918. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-827-5.
- Powles, C. Guy (1922). The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine. Official History New Zealand's Effort in the Great War, Volume III. Auckland: Whitcombe & Tombs Ltd. OCLC 2959465.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Preston, R. M. P. (2010 (reissue)). The Desert Mounted Corps: An Account of the Cavalry Operations in Palestine and Syria 1917–1918. London: Constable & Co. ISBN 1146758839.
{{cite book}}: Check date values in:|year=(help); Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - Roy, Kaushik (2011). The Indian Army in the Two World Wars. Vol. Volume 70 of History of Warfare. BRILL. ISBN 9789004185500.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Wavell, Field Marshal Earl (1968). E.W. Sheppard (ed.). The Palestine Campaigns. A Short History of the British Army (3rd ed.). London: Constable & Co.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Sumner, Ian; Chappell, Chris (2001). The Indian Army 1914–1947. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1841761961.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Woodward, David R. (2006). Hell in the Holy Land World War I in the Middle East. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2383-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)
Further reading
- Chappell, Mike (2002). Men at Arms Series British Cavalry Equipment 1800–1941. Men–at–arms No. 138 (revised ed.). Oxford: Osprey Publishing. OCLC 48783714.
External links
- Conflicts in 1918
- 1918 in the Palestinian territories
- Battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign
- Battles of World War I involving Australia
- Battles of World War I involving New Zealand
- Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
- Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire
- Battles of World War I involving France
- Battles of World War I involving British India
- Battles of World War I involving Germany
- Aerial operations and battles of World War I
- History of the Royal Air Force during World War I
- Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
- İsmet İnönü