April 2015 Nepal earthquake: Difference between revisions

2015 Nepal earthquake
	Kathmandu
UTC time	??
Magnitude	7.8Mw or 8.1 Ms
Depth	15.0 kilometers (9 mi)
Epicenter	28°08′49″N 84°42′29″E / 28.147°N 84.708°E
Type	Thrust
Areas affected	Nepal; Northern and Northeast India; Tibet, China; Bangladesh; Bhutan;
Max. intensity	IX (Violent)
Aftershocks	6.6Mw on 25 April at 12:30; 6.7Mw on 26 April at 12:54
Casualties	5,158 dead 11,520 injured

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The 2015 Nepal earthquake (also referred to as the Himalayan earthquake)^[7]^[8] occurred at 11:56 NST on 25 April with a moment magnitude (M_w) of 7.8 or 8.1M_s^[2] and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of IX (Violent). Its epicenter was approximately 34 km (21 mi) east-southeast of Lamjung, Nepal, and its hypocenter was at a depth of approximately 15 km (9.3 mi).^[1]

It was the most powerful disaster to strike Nepal since the 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake.^[9]^[10]^[11] As of 28 April 2015^[update], more than 5,000 people were believed to have died as a result, with casualties reported in Nepal and adjoining areas of India, China, and Bangladesh. Within minutes of the earthquake,^[12] the Government of India, via the Indian Armed Forces, initiated Operation Maitri ([Operation Amity] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help)), a massive humanitarian mission with the primary objective of conducting relief and rescue operations in Nepal.^[13] The Indian government also evacuated Indian and foreign citizens from Nepal.

The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest, killing at least 18.^[14] The death toll surpassed that of the 2014 Mount Everest avalanche, making it the most lethal day on the mountain.^[15] It triggered another huge avalanche in Langtang valley where 250 are missing.^[16] Centuries-old buildings were destroyed at UNESCO World Heritage sites in the Kathmandu Valley, including some at the Kathmandu Durbar Square. Nepal's governement has declared three days of mourning after the quake.^[17]

Continued aftershocks occurred throughout Nepal, with one shock reaching a magnitude of 6.7 on 26 April at 12:54:08 NST.^[4]

Earthquake

Video of 2015 earthquake at Everest Tea Garden

The earthquake occurred on 25 April 2015 at 11:56am NST (06:11:26 UTC) at a depth of approximately 15 km (9.3 mi) (which is considered shallow and therefore more damaging than quakes that originate deeper in the ground),^[18] with its epicenter approximately 34 km (21 mi) east-southeast of Lamjung, Nepal, lasting approximately twenty seconds.^[19] The earthquake was initially reported as 7.5 M_w by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) before it was quickly upgraded to 7.9 M_w and finally downgraded to 7.8 M_w. The China Earthquake Networks Center (CENC) reported the earthquake's magnitude to be 8.1 M_s. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) said two powerful quakes were registered in Nepal at 06:11 UTC and 06:45 UTC. The first quake measured 7.9 M_w and its epicenter was identified at a distance of 80 km to the northwest of the capital Kathmandu. The second earthquake was somewhat less powerful at 6.6 M_w. The seismic focus lay at a depth of 10 km (6.2 mi) below the earth's surface. Bharatpur was the nearest major city to the main earthquake, 53 km (33 mi) from the epicenter. The second earthquake occurred 81 km (50 mi) northwest of Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. Over thirty-five aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 M_w or greater occurred following the initial earthquake, including one of magnitude 6.6 M_w.^[20]

According to the USGS, the temblor was caused by a sudden thrust, or release of built-up stress, along the major fault line where the Indian Plate, carrying India, is slowly diving underneath the Eurasian Plate, carrying much of Europe and Asia.^[18] Kathmandu, situated on a block of crust approximately 120 km (75 miles) wide and 60 km (37 miles) long, reportedly shifted 3 m (10 ft) to the south in just 30 seconds.^[21]

The risk of a large earthquake was well known beforehand. In 2013, in an interview with seismologist Vinod Kumar Gaur, The Hindu quoted him as saying, "Calculations show that there is sufficient accumulated energy [in the MFT], now to produce an 8 magnitude earthquake. I cannot say when. It may not happen tomorrow, but it could possibly happen sometime this century, or wait longer to produce a much larger one."^[22] According to Brian Tucker, founder of a nonprofit organisation devoted to reducing casualties from natural disasters, some government officials had expressed confidence that such an earthquake would not occur again. Tucker recounted a conversation he had had with a government official in the 1990s who said, "We don't have to worry about earthquakes anymore, because we already had an earthquake;" the previous earthquake to which he referred was the one in 1934.^[23]

Geology

Nepal lies towards the southern limit of the diffuse collisional boundary where the Indian Plate underthrusts the Eurasian Plate,^[24] occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one third of the 2,400 km (1,500 mi) long Himalayas. Geologically, the Nepal Himalayas are sub-divided into five tectonic zones from north to south, east to west and almost parallel to sub-parallel.^[25] These five distinct morpho-geotectonic zones are: (1) Terai Plain, (2) Sub Himalaya (Sivalik Range), (3) Lesser Himalaya (Mahabharat Range and mid valleys), (4) Higher Himalaya, and (5) Inner Himalaya (Tibetan Tethys).^[26] Each of these zones is clearly identified by their morphological, geological, and tectonic features.^[26]

The convergence rate between the plates in central Nepal is about 45 mm (1.8 in) per year. The location, magnitude, and focal mechanism of the earthquake suggest that it was caused by a slip along the Main Frontal Thrust.^[1]^[27]

The earthquake's effects were amplified in Kathmandu as it sits on the Kathmandu Basin, which contains up to 600 m (2,000 ft) of sedimentary rocks, representing the infilling of a lake.^[28]

Based on the study of the Main Frontal Thrust, on average a big earthquake occurs every 1000 years in the east Nepal region.^[29]

Intensity

According to "Did You Feel It?" (DYFI) responses on the USGS website, the intensity in Kathmandu was IX (Violent).^[1] Tremors were felt in the neighboring Indian states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,^[30] in the Indian capital region around New Delhi^[31] and as far south as Karnataka. Many buildings were brought down in Bihar. Minor cracks in the walls of houses were reported in Odisha. Minor quakes were registered as far as Kochi in the southern state of Kerala. The intensity in Patna was V (Moderate).^[32] The intensity was IV (Light) in Dhaka, Bangladesh.^[1] The earthquake was also experienced across southwestern China, ranging from the Tibet Autonomous Region to Chengdu, which is 1,900 km (1,200 mi) away from the epicenter.^[33] Tremors were felt in Pakistan^[34] and Bhutan.^[1]

Aftershocks

A major aftershock of magnitude 6.7 M_w occurred on 26 April 2015 in the same region at 12:55 NST (07:09 UTC), with an epicenter located about 17 km (11 mi) south of Kodari, Nepal.^[34]^[35] The aftershock caused fresh avalanches on Mount Everest and was felt in many places in northern India including Kolkata, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Assam.^[36] The aftershock caused a landslide on the Koshi Highway which blocked the section of the road between Bhedetar and Mulghat.^[37]

A model of GeoGateway, based on a USGS mechanism, of a near-horizontal fault and location of aftershocks showed, that the fault was an 11° dip striking at 295°, 50 km wide, 150 km long, and had a dip slip of 3 m.^[38] The US Geological Survey says the aftershock on Sunday registered at a shallow depth of 10 kilometers (6 miles).^[36]

Assuming that this earthquake is the largest event in this seismic episode, Nepal can expect more than 30 aftershocks greater than magnitude 5 over the next month.^[39]

Aftermath

Casualties by country
Country	Deaths	Injuries	Ref.
Nepal	5,057	10,915	^[40]
India	76	288	^[41]
China	25	117	^[42]
Bangladesh	4	200	^[43]
Total	5,162	11,520

Foreign casualties in Nepal
Country	Deaths	Ref.
India	7	^[44]
China	4	^[45]
Italy	4	^[46]
United States	4	^[47]
France	3	^[48]
Australia	2	^[49]^[50]
Belgium	2	^[49]
Germany	2	^[49]
Netherlands	2	^[49]
Estonia	1	^[51]
Japan	1	^[52]
New Zealand	1	^[53]
Total	33

Casualties

UNICEF announced that close to 1 million children were "severely affected" by the disaster.^[54] On 27 April, The Himalayan Times reported that as many as 20,000 foreign nationals may have been visiting Nepal at the time of the earthquake.^[55] Hundreds of people are still considered missing and more than 450,000 are displaced.^{[citation needed]}

As of 4:14 p.m. 27 April in India, Home Minister Rajnath Singh confirmed that 56 people died in the state of Bihar, 12 in Uttar Pradesh, 3 in West Bengal and 1 in Rajasthan.^[56]

Avalanches on Mount Everest

On Mount Everest, several hundred trekkers were attempting an ascent when the earthquake struck, setting off avalanches, according to climbers there.^[57] One avalanche killed people at South Base Camp.^[58]^[59]^[60] An Indian Army mountaineering team recovered the bodies of 19 mountaineers from Everest base camp and rescued at least 61 stranded climbers from the mountain.^[61]^[62]^[63] Google executive Dan Fredinburg, climbing with three other company employees while mapping the area for a future Google Earth-type project, was among the casualties.^[64] Between 700 and 1,000+ people were thought to be on the mountain at the time, with at least 61 injured, "dozens" missing, and many more initially stranded at camps at higher altitudes, having lost secure descent routes.^[58]^[59]^[65]^[66]^[67]^[68] Mount Everest is approximately 220 kilometres (140 mi) east of the epicentre.

Helicopters of the Indian Air Force reached Mount Everest on the morning of 26 April for rescue operations,^[69] managing to transport 22 of the badly injured to Pheriche village, before the operation was halted by bad weather.^[70] Pheriche is an important stopover for climbers, and has a rudimentary hospital usually staffed by locals and foreign volunteers. Later that day, a helicopter reportedly evacuated several climbers from Everest Camp 1, the first stage above Base Camp, with some 100 mountaineers still unable to safely descend from Camp 1 and 2.^[71] Many more were rescued on 27 April.^[72] Climbers at the base camp posted to Twitter in the days after the disaster, speaking of "great desolation" and "high uncertainty" among those who were left, and stating that the area looked as if it had been hit by a nuclear bomb; one mountaineer, speaking via Facebook, said that people stuck higher up on the mountain were "getting desperate".^[73]

Avalanche in the Langtang valley

In the Langtang valley, around 250 people have been reported missing after a huge avalanche that resulted in the village of Langtang itself being wiped out.^[16]^[74]

Damage

The Tribhuvan International Airport serving Kathmandu was closed immediately after the quake, but was re-opened later in the day for relief operations, with commercial flights planned to resume on April 26.^[75] It has since shut down operations sporadically due to aftershocks,^[76] and many workers are not at their posts, either from becoming earthquake casualties or because they are dealing with its aftereffects.^[77]

Buildings in Kathmandu Durbar Square, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, collapsed,^[19] as did the Dharahara tower, built in 1832; the collapse of the latter structure killed at least 180 people,^[78]^[79]^[80]^[81] Manakamana Temple in Gorkha was also destroyed. The northern side of Janaki Mandir has been reported to be damaged.^[82] Several temples, including Kasthamandap, Panchtale temple, the nine-storey Basantapur Durbar, the Dasa Avtar temple, Krishna Mandir and two dewals located behind the Shiva Parvati temple, were demolished by the quake. A few other monuments, including the Kumari Temple and the Taleju Bhawani, among others, have partially collapsed. The top of the Jay Bageshwori Temple in Gaushala and some parts of the Pashupatinath Temple, Swyambhunath, Boudhanath Stupa, Ratna Mandir, inside Rani Pokhari, and Durbar High School have been destroyed.^[83] Telephone service in Kathmandu has been sporadic since the quake, as has electricity.^[77]

In Patan, the Char Narayan Mandir, the statue of Yog Narendra Malla, a pati inside Patan Durbar Square, the Taleju Temple, the Hari Shanker and Uma Maheshwor Temple and the Machhindranath Temple in Bungmati were destroyed. In Tripureshwor, the Kal Mochan Ghat, a temple inspired by Mughal architecture, was completely destroyed and the nearby Tripura Sundari also suffered significant damage. In Bhaktapur, several monuments, including the Fasi Deva temple, the Chardham temple and the 17th century Vatsala Durga Temple, were fully or partially destroyed.^[83]

Outside the Valley, the Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, the Gorkha Durbar, the Palanchowk Bhagwati, in Kavrepalanchowk District, the Rani Mahal in Palpa District, the Janaki Mandir in Janakpur, the Churiyamai in Makwanpur District, the Dolakha Bhimsensthan in Dolakha District, and the Nuwakot Durbar were partially destroyed.^[83]

Historian Prushottam Lochan Shrestha stated, "We have lost most of the monuments that had been designated as World Heritage Sites in Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur District, Nepal. They cannot be restored to their original states."^[83]

Economic effects

Nepal, with a total GDP of $19.921 billion (according to a 2012 estimate)^[84], is one of Asia's poorest countries, and has little ability to fund a major reconstruction effort on its own.^[85] Even before the quake, the Asian Development Bank estimated that it would need to spend about four times more than it currently does annually on infrastructure through 2020 to attract investment.^[85] The U.S. Geological Survey initially estimated economic losses from the temblor at 9 percent to 50 percent of gross domestic product, with a best guess of 35 percent. "It’s too hard for now to tell the extent of the damage and the effect on Nepal’s GDP", according to Hun Kim, an Asian Development Bank (ADB) official. The ADB said on the 28th that it would provide a USD$3 million grant to Nepal for immediate relief efforts, and up to USD$200 million for the first phase of rehabilitation.^[85]

"This is a very catastrophic event in a very poor nation. The cost of reconstruction over the next few years will be massive. Rebuilding costs could easily exceed USD$5 billion, which would be about 20 percent of Nepal's gross domestic product. Massive international disaster relief and rescue efforts will be needed urgently, as well as large-scale international financial and technical assistance for long-term reconstruction of the economy." said Rajiv Biswas, chief Asia-Pacific economist at Colorado-based consultancy services IHS Inc.^[85]^[86]

International humanitarian response

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External links

USGS Earthquake Hazards Program on USGS Website
Deadly earthquake Nepal on Earthquake Report Website

[USGS-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k "M7.8 – 29 km ESE of Lamjung, Nepal". United States Geological Survey. 25 April 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2015.

[CENC-2] "2015年4月25日尼泊尔8.1级地震情况通报（in Chinese）". China Earthquake Networks Center. 25 April 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2015.

[usgs2-3] "M6.6 - 49km E of Lamjung, Nepal".

[earthquake.usgs.gov-4] "M6.7 - 17km S of Kodari, Nepal". usgs.gov.

[5] "LIVE: 250 people feared missing after mudslide in Nepal village". The Indian Express. 28 April 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2015.

[6] ttp://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=apr2815/at050

[7] Cindy Tran; Liam Quinn (25 April 2015). "Desperate families of DOZENS of Australians unaccounted in the deadly Himalayan earthquake disaster take to social media with pleas for help finding their loved ones". Daily Mail. Retrieved 26 April 2015.

[8] Chidanand Rajghatta (26 April 2015). "Is this the 'Big Himalayan Quake' we feared?". The Times of India. Retrieved 26 April 2015.

[9] "What 1934 Told Nepal to Expect About the Next Big Quake".

[10] "Timeline: Nepal 2015 to 1934, the worst quake disasters in the last 80 years".

[11] "Nepal earthquake: Eerie reminder of 1934 tragedy".

[auto9-12] "It took Modi minutes to help neighbouring Nepal after earthquake". Business Day Live. 25 April 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2015.

[PIBPR-13] "Army Launches Operation Maitri" (Press release). New Delhi: Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India. Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 27 April 2015.

[14] ytimes.com 2015-04-27 katmandu-nepal-fear-loss-and-devastation

[15] "First survivors of Mount Everest avalanche reach Kathmandu". Fox News. The Associated Press. 26 April 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2015.

[MailOnline-16] "Up to 250 missing after avalanche hits Nepal trekking route". "Mail Online". Retrieved 28 April 2015.

[dw-17] "Nepal government declares three days of mourning after deadly quake".

[NatGeo-18] Howard, Brian Clark (25 April 2015). "Nepal Earthquake Strikes One of Earth's Most Quake-Prone Areas". National Geographic. Retrieved 27 April 2015.

[alj-19] "Powerful earthquake hits Nepal". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 25 April 2015.

[earthNP-20] "1 Day, Magnitude 2.5+ Worldwide". Retrieved 25 April 2015.

[SydMorn-21] Joel Achenbach (27 April 2015). "Kathmandu shifts three metres in 30 seconds". Sydney Morning Herald (Washington Post). Retrieved 28 April 2015.

[22] Internet Desk. "Was this the big earthquake that was predicted in the Himalayas?". The Hindu. Retrieved 28 April 2015.

[23] "Experts had warned for decades that Nepal was vulnerable to a killer quake". Washington Post. Retrieved 27 April 2015.

[24] Amos, Jonathan (25 April 2015). "Why Nepal is so vulnerable to quakes". BBC. Retrieved 27 April 2015.

[25] "GEOLOGY OF NEPAL HIMALAYA". n.d. Retrieved 27 April 2015.

[Nepal_Geology-26] "General Geology". Government of Nepal. 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2015.

[27] Josh Fischman. "How The Deadly Nepal Earthquake Happened [GRAPHIC]". scientificamerican.com. Retrieved 28 April 2015.

[Mugnier_et_al_2011-28] Mughier J.L., Huyghe P., Gajurel A.P., Upreti B.N. & Jouanne F.; Huyghe; Gajurel; Upreti; Jouanne (2011). "Seismites in the Kathmandu basin and seismic hazard in central Himalaya" (PDF). Tectonophysics. 509 (1–2): 33–49. Bibcode:2011Tectp.509...33M. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2011.05.012.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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v t e ← Earthquakes in 2015 →
April	Gorkha, Nepal (7.8, April 25) †‡
May	Kodari, Nepal (7.3, May 12) † Ogasawara, Japan (7.8, May 30)
June	Sabah, Malaysia (6.0, June 4)
July	Pishan, China (6.4, July 3) Islamabad, Pakistan (5.1, July 24)
August	South Kivu, DR Congo (5.8, August 7)
September	Illapel, Chile (8.3, September 16)
October	Hindu Kush, Afghanistan (7.5, October 26) †
November	Lefkada, Greece (6.5, November 17)
December	Murghob District, Tajikistan (7.2, December 7) Hindu Kush, Afghanistan (6.3, December 25)
† indicates earthquake resulting in at least 30 deaths ‡ indicates the deadliest earthquake of the year Times for all earthquakes are in UTC

v t e Himalayan earthquakes
Notable Himalayan quakes	1505 Lo Mustang 1555 Kashmir 1714 Bhutan 1803 Garhwal 1833 Kathmandu–Bihar 1885 Kashmir 1897 Assam 1905 Kangra 1934 Bihar 1947 Assam 1950 Assam–Tibet 1980 Nepal 1988 Myanmar-India 1988 Nepal 1991 Uttarkashi 1999 Chamoli 2005 Kashmir 2008 Damxung 2009 Bhutan 2011 Sikkim April 2015 Nepal May 2015 Nepal 2021 Assam 2023 Nepal
Plate tectonics	Geology of the Himalayas Indian Plate Eurasian Plate Oldham Fault Main Frontal Thrust Main Himalayan Thrust Main Central Thrust South Tibetan Detachment North Himalayan Normal Fault